They wish that you reject Faith, as they have rejected (Faith), and thus that you all become equal (like one another). So take not Auliyâ' (protectors or friends) from them, till they emigrate in the Way of Allâh. But if they turn back (from Islâm), take (hold) of them and kill them wherever you find them... (Q4.89)

And they will never cease fighting you until they turn you back from your religion (Islâmic Monotheism) if they can. And whosoever of you turns back from his religion and dies as a disbeliever, then his deeds will be lost in this life and in the Hereafter, and they will be the dwellers of the Fire. They will abide therein forever. (Q2.217)

Bukhari records the following traditions:

Ali burnt some people and this news reached Ibn 'Abbas, who said, "Had I been in his place I would not have burnt them, as the Prophet said, 'Don't punish (anybody) with Allah's Punishment.' No doubt, I would have killed them, for the Prophet said, 'If somebody (a Muslim) discards his religion, kill him.'"

Allah's Apostle said, "The blood of a Muslim who confesses that Lâ ilaha illallâh (none has the right to be worshipped but Allah) and that I am His Apostle, cannot be shed except in three cases: In Qisas for murder, a married person who commits illegal sexual intercourse and the one who reverts from Islam (apostate) and leaves the Muslims."

No doubt I heard Allah's Apostle saying, "During the last days there will appear some young foolish people who will say the best words but their faith will not go beyond their throats (i.e. they will have no faith) and will go out from (leave) their religion as an arrow goes out of the game. So, where-ever you find them, kill them, for who-ever kills them shall have reward on the Day of Resurrection."

And in the Muwatta of Malik:

Yahya related to me from Malik from Zayd ibn Aslam that the Messenger of Allah, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, said, "If someone changes his deen (religion) - strike his neck!"

Islamic scholars have ruled that the following acts "negate Islam" and represent apostasy:

• Shirk - associating partners in worship with Allah.
  Verily! Allâh forgives not (the sin of) setting up partners in worship with Him, but He forgives whom he pleases sins other than that, and whoever sets up partners in worship with Allâh, has indeed strayed far away. (Q4.116)

• Relying on an intermediary between oneself and Allah when seeking intercession.

• Refusal to condemn the kufr of those who rely on other deities instead of Allah, or doubting that they are disbelievers, or approving of their religion.

• Belief that there is a more perfect guidance than that of the Prophet, or that there is a form of governance that is preferable to this, such as someone who prefers the rule of tyrants to that of the Prophet.

• Dislike of any part of the Revelation.
  Then do you believe in a part of the Scripture and reject the rest? Then what is the recompense of those who do so among you, except disgrace in the life of this world, and on the Day of Resurrection they shall be consigned to the most grievous torment. And Allâh is not unaware of what you do. (Q2.85)

  That is because they hate that which Allâh has sent down (this Qur'ân and Islâmic laws, etc.), so He has made their deeds fruitless. (Q47.9)

• Disparaging any part of the Deen or any aspect of reward or punishment.
  If you ask them (about this), they declare: "We were only talking idly and joking." Say: "Was it at Allâh, and His Ayât (revelations) and His Messenger that you were mocking?" Make no excuse; you have disbelieved after you had believed. If We pardon some of you, We will punish others amongst you because they were Mujrimûn (disbelievers, criminals, etc.). The hypocrites, men and women, are from one another, they enjoin (on the people) Al-Munkar (i.e. disbelief of all kinds and all that Islâm has forbidden), and forbid (people) from Al-Ma'rûf (i.e. all that Islâm orders one to do), and they close their hands [from giving Zakat]. They have forgotten Allâh, so He has forgotten them. Verily, the hypocrites are the Fâsiqûn (rebellious, disobedient to Allâh) (Q9.65-67)

• Practicing magic.

• Taking disbelievers as friends or protectors, especially over Muslims.
  O you who believe! Take not the Jews and the Christians as Auliyâ' (friends, protectors, helpers, etc.), they are but Auliyâ' to one another. And if any amongst you takes them as Auliyâ', then surely he is one of them. Verily, Allâh guides not those people who are the Zâlimûn (wrong­doers and unjust). (Q5.51)

• Belief that it is not necessary to follow the Prophet, and that it is permitted to step outside the Law of Allah.
  But no, by your Lord, they can have no Faith, until they make you (O Muhammad) judge in all disputes between them, and find in themselves no resistance against your decisions, and accept (them) with full submission. (Q4.65)

  And whosoever does not judge by what Allah has revealed, such are kafirun (disbelievers). (Q5.44)

  [Say (O Muhammad) to these idolaters of your folk:] Follow what has been sent down unto you from your Lord (the Qur'ân and Prophet Muhammad's Sunnah), and follow not any Auliyâ' (protectors and helpers, etc.), besides Him (Allâh). Little do you remember! (Q7.3)

  And who is more astray than one who follows his own lusts, without guidance from Allâh? Verily! Allâh guides not the people who are Zâlimûn (wrong-doers, disobedient to Allâh). (Q28.50)

  [Muhammad said] "The best of the speech is embodied in the Book of Allah, and the best of the guidance is the guidance given by Muhammad. And the most evil affairs are their innovations; and every innovation is error." (Muslim)

• Wilful neglect of Islam, neither learning it nor acting upon it.
  And who does more wrong than he who is reminded of the Ayat (revelation) of his Lord, then turns aside therefrom? Verily, We shall exact retribution from the mujrimun (criminals, disbelievers, sinners). (Q32.22)

• That the edicts of the unbelievers be promulgated, and the edicts of Islam be suppressed.
• The country in question be adjoining a Dar al-Harb and no other Muslim country lie between them (that is, when the duty of Jihad or religious war becomes incumbent upon them, and they have not the power to carry it on).
• That no protection (aman) remains for either a Muslim or a dhimmi; viz. that amanu 'l-awwal, or that first protection which was given them when the country was first conquered by Islam.

Hughes further explains that the Imams Yusuf and Muhammad both say that when the edicts of unbelievers are promulgated in a country, it is sufficient to constitute it a Dar al-Harb.

Islamic jurisprudence divides the world into two spheres, Dar al-Harb and Dar al-Islam. This is based on the established Islamic doctrine that the Earth in its entirety belongs to Allah and to the Muslims, and due to the fact that, according to Islam, the message of all the prophets and messengers of God in the Bible was Islam. The Qur'an says,

• Surely, they have disbelieved who say: "Allâh is the Messiah (Jesus), son of Maryam." But the Messiah said: "O Children of Israel! Worship Allâh, my Lord and your Lord."

• Mûsa (Moses) said to his people: "Seek help in Allâh and be patient. Verily, the earth is Allâh's. He gives it as a heritage to whom He will of His slaves, and the (blessed) end is for the Muttaqûn (pious). (Q7.128)

• They (the disbelievers) want to extinguish Allâh's Light with their mouths, but Allâh will not allow except that His Light should be perfected even though the Kâfirûn hate (it). It is He Who has sent His Messenger with guidance and the religion of truth (Islâm), to make it superior over all religions even though the Mushrikûn hate (it).

• And fight them until there is no more Fitnah and the religion (worship) will all be for Allâh Alone.

Bukhari relates the following traditions of the Prophet:

While we were in the mosque, Allah's Apostle came out to us and said, "Let us proceed to the Jews." So we went along with him till we reached Bait-al-Midras (a place where the Torah used to be recited and all the Jews of the town used to gather). The Prophet stood up and addressed them, "O Assembly of Jews! Embrace Islam and you will be safe!" The Jews replied, "O Aba-l-Qasim! You have conveyed Allah's message to us." The Prophet said, "That is what I want (from you)." He repeated his first statement for the second time, and they said, "You have conveyed Allah's message, O Aba-l-Qasim." Then he said it for the third time and added, "You should Know that the earth belongs to Allah and His Apostle, and I want to exile you from this land, so whoever among you owns some property, can sell it, otherwise you should know that the Earth belongs to Allah and His Apostle."

As well as:

Allah's Apostle said: "I have been ordered (by Allah) to fight against the people until they testify that Lâ ilaha illallâh wa Anna Muhammad-ur-Rasûl Allâh (none has the right to be worshipped but Allah and that Muhammad is Allah's Apostle), and offer the prayers perfectly and give the obligatory charity, so if they perform a that, then they save their lives an property from me except for Islamic laws and then their reckoning (accounts) will be done by Allah."

And:

Allah's Messenger said, "By Him (Allah) in whose Hands my soul is, surely the son of Maryam (Mary), 'Iesa (Jesus) will shortly descend amongst you people (Muslims) and will judge mankind justly by the Law of the Qur'an (as a just ruler) and will break the cross and kill the pigs and abolish the Jizyah.

The purpose of jihad is to eradicate disbelief wherever it manifests itself in the world, so that Dar al-Harb is supplanted by Dar al-Islam. Because the Earth belongs to Allah and his apostle, this is not an offensive war, because the Muslims are merely taking what is rightfully theirs. An example of this fundamental belief is found in Bin Laden's Letter to America following the attacks of September 11, 2001:

(ii) It brings us both laughter and tears to see that you have not yet tired of repeating your fabricated lies that the Jews have a historical right to Palestine, as it was promised to them in the Torah. Anyone who disputes with them on this alleged fact is accused of anti-semitism. This is one of the most fallacious, widely-circulated fabrications in history. The people of Palestine are pure Arabs and original Semites. It is the Muslims who are the inheritors of Moses (peace be upon him) and the inheritors of the real Torah that has not been changed. Muslims believe in all of the Prophets, including Abraham, Moses, Jesus and Muhammad, peace and blessings of Allah be upon them all. If the followers of Moses have been promised a right to Palestine in the Torah, then the Muslims are the most worthy nation of this.

When the Muslims conquered Palestine and drove out the Romans, Palestine and Jerusalem returned to Islam (emphasis mine), the religion of all the Prophets peace be upon them. Therefore, the call to a historical right to Palestine cannot be raised against the Islamic Ummah that believes in all the Prophets of Allah (peace and blessings be upon them) - and we make no distinction between them.

The inhabitants of the Dar al-Harb are often known as harbis.

Da'wah has a strong presence inside Western jails, particularly America, where fundamentalists seek out criminals disaffected with their country or government and start them on the path to jihad. The Al Haramain Islamic Foundation, a group that had its assets frozen because of jihadist activities such as its participation in the Kenya and Tanzania embassy attacks in 1997, had a strong presence in American prisons including a database compiled by questionaires filled out by inmates that contained over 15,000 potential recruits. Pamphlets titled "The Call to Jihad (Holy Fighting in Allah's Cause) in the Koran" were distributed in the prisons.

Some of the more notorious examples of jihadists recruited through prison da'wah include Kevin James, a California prison inmate who founded the Jam'iyyat Ul-Islam Is-Saheeh ("Assembly of Authentic Islam") and conspired to attack U.S. military facilities, Israeli government facilities and Jewish synagogues in the Los Angeles area, as well as Richard Reid - the "Shoe Bomber" - who was tought Islam by a fundamentalist imam in a British prison.

In the Beto One Prison Unit in East Texas in 2003, a thirty-minute videotape titled "Message to the Oppressed" was seized during Islamic services. It preached violent jihad, praised HAMAS, Islamic Jihad, and Hezbollah, and contained vicious anti-Semetic sermons by Muhammad Abdullah, a California-based imam.

The Senate judiciary subcommittee on terrorism concluded recently that U.S. prisons and jails are a key area of recruitment for Al Qaeda and other terror organizations. John Moriarty, Inspector General of the Texas Department of Criminal Justice, said, "There have been cases domestically here in the United States and some of the training we have received indicates that there is a possibility that there is a recruiting effort going on inside prisons." These recruitment programs are almost exclusively run by foreign elements.

This system, introduced by Sultan Orkhan (1326-1359), was an indication of the perpetual state of war between the rayah (dhimmi) and the Ottomans, and was recognized as such as both sides; children lost to devshirme were regarded by the rayah as casualties of war. This state of war justified what would have otherwise been a blatant infringement on the dhimma, which due to this state of war was never formally enacted. In most cases the blood levy was only enforced upon peoples who did not surrender without resistance. The periodic abductions became annual, and recruiting agents often took more than the prescribed number of children, selling the "surplus" back to their parents.

Taking on average at least 1,000 children a year, and as many as 12,000 a year, the blood levy was by far the most hated of the discriminatory taxes imposed by the Ottomans on non-Muslims. In order to save their children from abduction, families were forced to flee to areas which enjoyed exemption from the devshirme - typically cities that surrendered without resistance. Others forced their children into marriages at very young ages. Families often purchased children from poor Muslim families in order to be given up in place of their own. And, most grievously, many parents deliberately mutilated their healthy children to render them unattractive to the Ottoman recruiting agents.

Devshirme was abolished in 1656, but a similar system, in which children between the ages of six and ten were taken to be trained in the sultan's palace, continued into the eighteenth century when Sultan Abdul Hamid II slaughtered all of them, some 26,000, in 1826.

Typically the dhimma was only offered to those non-Muslims who, having heard the call to Islam, chose dhimmi status rather than fight; those who offered up armed resistance suffered the full effect of Islamic custom - that is, the summary execution of all adult males and the enslavement of women and children. This is largely based on the the example of Muhammad and the Banu Qurayza Jews.

The most typical and widely adhered to example of the dhimma is the so-called Pact of Umar bin al-Khattab (the second of the Rightly Guided Caliphs), which is supposedly the peace accord offered to the Christians of Syria. Bound by this pact, the dhimmi

• could not build new monasteries, Churches, convents, or monks' cells, nor repair those that fall into disrepair.
• were required to give board and lodging to Muslims for up to three days.
• could not teach the Qur'an to their children.
• could not practice their religion publicly nor convert anyone to it.
• could not prevent any of their family from converting to Islam.
• could not mount on saddles.
• could not bare arms of any kind.
• could not sell or display alcoholic beverages.
• were forced to clip the fronts of our heads.
• were forced to dress identically, with a identifying zunar (a wide belt) around their wastes.
• could not display crosses or their books in the roads or markets of the Muslims.
• could not raise their voices when following their dead.
• could not bury their dead near Muslims.
• could not build houses that were higher than the houses of Muslims, no matter how low

Under the Shari'a, even the most minor infraction of these ordinances abolished the dhimma and left the door open for the resumption of jihad.

The legal and social conditions of Jews and Christians subjected to Islamic rule has come to be known as dhimmitude, a term coined by historian Bat Ye'or. Dhimmitude can only be understood in the context of jihad, since without jihad there was no need for a covanent to "protect" the conquered subjects.

Ibn Kathir's tafsir of Qur'an 9.29

The Order to fight People of the Scriptures until They give the Jizyah

Allah said,

(Fight against those who believe not in Allah, nor in the Last Day, nor forbid that which has been forbidden by Allah and His Messenger, and those who acknowledge not the religion of truth among the People of the Scripture, until they pay the Jizyah with willing submission, and feel themselves subdued.)

Therefore, when People of the Scriptures disbelieved in Muhammad , they had no beneficial faith in any Messenger or what the Messengers brought. Rather, they followed their religions because this conformed with their ideas, lusts and the ways of their forefathers, not because they are Allah's Law and religion. Had they been true believers in their religions, that faith would have directed them to believe in Muhammad , because all Prophets gave the good news of Muhammad's advent and commanded them to obey and follow him. Yet when he was sent, they disbelieved in him, even though he is the mightiest of all Messengers. Therefore, they do not follow the religion of earlier Prophets because these religions came from Allah, but because these suit their desires and lusts. Therefore, their claimed faith in an earlier Prophet will not benefit them because they disbelieved in the master, the mightiest, the last and most perfect of all Prophets . Hence Allah's statement,

(Fight against those who believe not in Allah, nor in the Last Day, nor forbid that which has been forbidden by Allah and His Messenger, and those who acknowledge not the religion of truth among the People of the Scripture,)

This honorable Ayah was revealed with the order to fight the People of the Book, after the pagans were defeated, the people entered Allah's religion in large numbers, and the Arabian Peninsula was secured under the Muslims' control. Allah commanded His Messenger to fight the People of the Scriptures, Jews and Christians, on the ninth year of Hijrah, and he prepared his army to fight the Romans and called the people to Jihad announcing his intent and destination. The Messenger sent his intent to various Arab areas around Al-Madinah to gather forces, and he collected an army of thirty thousand. Some people from Al-Madinah and some hypocrites, in and around it, lagged behind, for that year was a year of drought and intense heat. The Messenger of Allah marched, heading towards Ash-Sham to fight the Romans until he reached Tabuk, where he set camp for about twenty days next to its water resources. He then prayed to Allah for a decision and went back to Al-Madinah because it was a hard year and the people were weak, as we will mention, Allah willing.

Paying Jizyah is a Sign of Kufr and Disgrace

Allah said,

(until they pay the Jizyah),

if they do not choose to embrace Islam,

(with willing submission),

in defeat and subservience,

(and feel themselves subdued.),

disgraced, humiliated and belittled. Therefore, Muslims are not allowed to honor the people of Dhimmah or elevate them above Muslims, for they are miserable, disgraced and humiliated. Muslim recorded from Abu Hurayrah that the Prophet said,

(Do not initiate the Salam to the Jews and Christians, and if you meet any of them in a road, force them to its narrowest alley.)

This is why the Leader of the faithful `Umar bin Al-Khattab, may Allah be pleased with him, demanded his well-known conditions be met by the Christians, these conditions that ensured their continued humiliation, degradation and disgrace. The scholars of Hadith narrated from `Abdur-Rahman bin Ghanm Al-Ash`ari that he said, "I recorded for `Umar bin Al-Khattab, may Allah be pleased with him, the terms of the treaty of peace he conducted with the Christians of Ash-Sham: (see conditions outlined in Pact of Umar, above).

Creating disorder and corruption on earth by following a path other than God's. Islam maintains that true peace and happiness emanate only through the observance of God's commands and through making a conscious effort to see that His laws alone are implemented in every sphere of life. Fasad occurs when man violates God's laws and disobeys Him.

Muzammil H. Siddiqi, the chairman of the Fiqh Counsil of North America, authored a sermon on al-fasad:

The Qur'anic term for corruption is al-Fasad. It means spoiling the order, disturbing the balance of justice by greed, self-interest, deception and double talk. The Qur'an has used this word about 50 times. Al-Fasad could be in morals, in values, in social system, in family system, in educational system, in economics, in politics or in human relations in general.

Al-Fasad appears when people follow their lusts and vain desires, when they try to twist the truth and distort the facts. Instead of following the Truth and the Guidance from their Lord and Creator, they ignore and turn away from His message.

Fasad appears most notably in Qur'an 5.32, which says, "Because of that We ordained for the Children of Israel that if anyone killed a person not in retaliation of murder, or (and) fasad fil-ardh (to spread mischief in the land) - it would be as if he killed all mankind..." Few people bother to ask what it means to "spread mischief in the land", but it must be a heinous sin, as the prescribed punishment, described in the following verse, is "that they shall be killed or crucified or their hands and their feet be cut off on the opposite sides, or be exiled from the land."

Ibn Kathir's Commentary on al-Fasad

The meaning of mischief (Q2.11-12)

In his Tafsir, As-Suddi said that Ibn `Abbas and Ibn Mas`ud commented,

(And when it is said to them: "Do not make mischief on the earth,'' they say: "We are only peacemakers.'')

They are the hypocrites. As for,

("Do not make mischief on the earth"),

that is disbelief and acts of disobedience." Abu Ja`far said that Ar-Rabi` bin Anas said that Abu Al-`Aliyah said that Allah's statement,

(And when it is said to them: "Do not make mischief on the earth"),

means, "Do not commit acts of disobedience on the earth. Their mischief is disobeying Allah, because whoever disobeys Allah on the earth, or commands that Allah be disobeyed, he has committed mischief on the earth. Peace on both the earth and in the heavens is ensured (and earned) through obedience (to Allah)."
...
Allah said,

(And those who disbelieve are allies of one another, if you do not do this (help each other), there will be fitnah on the earth, and great mischief.) (Q8:73),

Seditions; strifes; commotions. A term specially used for those wars and commotions which shall precede the Resurrection.

Fitnah appears several times in the Qur'an, and it's definition in an Islamic context is given by Qur'an 2.217: "to prevent mankind from following the Way of Allâh, to disbelieve in Him." Therefore fitnah is also often translated to mean "disbelief" or "shirk". Ibn Kathir comments on Qur'an 2.191:

Shirk is worse than Killing

Since Jihad involves killing and shedding the blood of men, Allah indicated that these men are committing disbelief in Allah, associating with Him (in the worship) and hindering from His path, and this is a much greater evil and more disastrous than killing. Abu Malik commented about what Allah said:

(And Al-Fitnah is worse than killing.)

Meaning what you (disbelievers) are committing is much worse than killing." Abu Al-`Aliyah, Mujahid, Sa`id bin Jubayr, `Ikrimah, Al-Hasan, Qatadah, Ad-Dahhak and Ar-Rabi` bin Anas said that what Allah said:

(And Al-Fitnah is worse than killing.)

"Shirk (polytheism) is worse than killing."

Confusion arises when one ponders why simple disbelief and persecution are given as definitions for the same word. In an Islamic context, if you are open and active in your disbelief, you "prevent mankind from following the Way of Allah," and lead them to a path of disbelief which leads to hell. This is why, according to Qur'an 2.217, "fitnah is worse than killing."

These distinctions lead us inevitably to two verses which define the essence of jihad in the Qur'an - Qur'an 2.193 and 8.39 - both of which command Muslims to fight the disbelievers until fitnah is at an end and all and every kind of worship is for Allah alone. These verses, among others, constitute a universal declaration of war, for all time, against anyone who does not submit to Islam. In addition to these, a tradition of the prophet further establishes their meaning:

Allah's Apostle said: "I have been ordered (by Allah) to fight against the people until they testify that Lâ ilaha illallâh wa Anna Muhammad-ur-Rasûl Allâh (none has the right to be worshipped but Allah and that Muhammad is Allah's Apostle), and offer the prayers perfectly and give the obligatory charity, so if they perform a that, then they save their lives an property from me except for Islamic laws and then their reckoning (accounts) will be done by Allah."

Nearly all commentary on Qur'an 2.193 and 8.39 makes reference to this tradition, mentioned no less than 8 times in the Two Sahihs (Bukhari and Muslim).

About this time there arose in my heart the desire to lead an expedition against the infidels, and to become a ghazi; for it had reached my ears that the slayer of infidels is a ghazi, and if he is slain he becomes a martyr.

See also mujahid.

The hijrah marks the beginning of Muhammad's ascendancy to power and the conception of the Islamic state. Escaping the "persecution" of the Quraysh (Muhammad's native tribe, which controlled Mecca), Muhammad and his followers migrated to Yathrib and lived under the protection of a small group who came to him in Mecca and pledged their loyalty to him (known as the Two Pledges of al-Aqaba).

It was not the Medinan's belief in Muhammad's message inandof itself that ultimately brought him to power in Medina and eventually Mecca, but his prowess as a military commander. Muhammad could not perform miracles, but many of his military victories were percieved to be miraculous. Further, in pre-Islamic Arabia, concepts of right and wrong were often associated with winning and losing; i.e., victory was seen as righteousness. Muhammad's companion Ali said, "Truth is the refuge of the successful." Muhammad was usually sucessful. As his power grew, so too did the boldness of the revelations he recieved and the harshness with which he treated his enemies. See naskh.

Ijtihad was originally a concept whereby a single qualfied Islamic scholar (mujtahid (also similar to mujahid)) applied independent reasoning to issues not specifically covered by the Qur'an and/or the Sunnah. This is contrary to Ijma', the collective opinion of a council of Mujtahidun, or enlightened doctors. Because ijtihad was banned in the eleventh century, the title of mujtahid has not been conferred on a scholar for centuries; ijma is generally reached by a concensus of ulema, literally "those who know".

With the gates of independent reasoning closed, fundamentalists imposed their own strict renderings on Islamic jurisprudence, which have been in effect for a thousand years. Because ijtihad involves matters which Muslims cannot find guidance in either the Qur'an or the Sunnah - a heinous blasphemy and likely at least one of the reasons it was banned - these gates are likely never to be opened again, and thus strict fundamentalist interpretations of jurisprudence are likely to hold sway.

Often interpreted by Westerners as "holy war", jihad in Islam strictly means the struggle to make Allah's word and religion supreme on Earth, to punish those who commit mischief, to eradicate shirk and fitnah, and to supplant the dar al-harb with dar al-Islam. This act is obligatory upon every Muslim and does not always involve violence and conquest, though these are certainly acceptable means (see da'wah). Once Islam is established in the land, those disbelievers who offered no resistance are given three choices: submit to Islam, disgrace themselves to dhimmi status, or die by the sword. Dhimmi status is usually not offered to pagans or polytheists, and even some Christians (see Mushrikûn). Those who fought against the Muslims find themselves at the mercy of the imam: they can be offered the Jizyah, they can be enslaved, ransomed, or adult males (those who have pubic hair) can be summarily executed.

A brief survey of jihad in the Qur'an:

• Jihâd is ordained for you (Muslims) though you dislike it, and it may be that you dislike a thing which is good for you and that you like a thing which is bad for you. Allâh knows but you do not know. (Q2.216)

• And fight them until there is no more Fitnah and (all and every kind of) worship is for Allâh (alone). (Q2.193)

• Those who believe, fight in the Cause of Allâh, and those who disbelieve, fight in the cause of Tâghût (Satan, etc.). (Q4.73)

• Not equal are those of the believers who sit (at home), except those who are disabled (by injury or are blind or lame, etc.), and those who strive hard and fight in the Cause of Allâh with their wealth and their lives. Allâh has preferred in grades those who strive hard and fight with their wealth and their lives above those who sit (at home). Unto each, Allâh has promised good, but Allâh has preferred those who strive hard and fight, above those who sit (at home) by a huge reward: Degrees of (higher) grades from Him, and Forgiveness and Mercy. And Allâh is Ever Oft­Forgiving, Most Merciful. (Q4.95-96)

• Say to those who have disbelieved, if they cease (from disbelief) their past will be forgiven. But if they return (thereto), then the examples of those (punished) before them have already preceded (as a warning). And fight them until there is no more Fitnah and the religion (worship) will all be for Allâh Alone. (Q8.38-39)

• Fight against those who believe not in Allâh, nor in the Last Day, nor forbid that which has been forbidden by Allâh and His Messenger and those who acknowledge not the religion of truth (Islâm) among the people of the Scripture (Jews and Christians), until they pay the Jizyah with willing submission, and feel themselves subdued. (Q9.29)

• If you march not forth, He will punish you with a painful torment and will replace you by another people, and you cannot harm Him at all, and Allâh is Able to do all things. (Q9.39)

• March forth, whether you are light (being healthy, young and wealthy) or heavy (being ill, old and poor), strive hard with your wealth and your lives in the Cause of Allâh. This is better for you, if you but knew. (Q9.41)

• Verily, Allâh has purchased of the believers their lives and their properties; for the price that theirs shall be the Paradise. They fight in Allâh's Cause, so they kill (others) and are killed. It is a promise in truth which is binding on Him in the Taurât (Torah) and the Injeel (Gospel) and the Qur'ân. And who is truer to his covenant than Allâh? Then rejoice in the bargain which you have concluded. That is the supreme success. (Q9.111)

Traditions of the prophet Muhammad:

• Allah's apostle said, "I have been ordered (by Allah) to fight against the people until they testify that Lâ ilaha illallâh wa Anna Muhammad-ur-Rasûl Allâh (none has the right to be worshipped but Allah and that Muhammad is Allah's Apostle), and offer the prayers perfectly and give the obligatory charity, so if they perform all that, then they save their lives and property from me except for Islamic laws and then their reckoning (accounts) will be done by Allâh."

• [W]hen the Messenger of Allah (may peace be upon him) appointed anyone as leader of an army or detachment he would especially exhort him to fear Allah and to be good to the Muslims who were with him. He would say: Fight in the name of Allah and in the way of Allah. Fight against those who disbelieve in Allah. Make a holy war ... When you meet your enemies who are polytheists, invite them to three courses of action. If they respond to any one of these, you also accept it and withold yourself from doing them any harm. Invite them to (accept) Islam; if they respond to you, accept it from them and desist from fighting against them ... If they refuse to accept Islam, demand from them the Jizya [discriminatory non-Muslim poll tax]. If they agree to pay, accept it from them and hold off your hands. If they refuse to pay the tax, seek Allah's help and fight them.

• A man came to the Prophet and asked, "A man fights for war booty; another fights for fame and a third fights for showing off; which of them fights in Allah's Cause?" The Prophet said, "He who fights that Allah's Word (i.e. Islam) should be superior, fights in Allah's Cause."

• A man came to Allah's Apostle and said, "Instruct me as to such a deed as equals Jihad." He replied, "I do not find such a deed."

• The Prophet said, "A single endeavor (of fighting) in Allah's Cause in the forenoon or in the afternoon is better than the world and whatever is in it."

A Pillar of Islam

Tradition holds that there are five pillars of Islam: to testify that Lâ ilaha illallâh wa Anna Muhammad-ur-Rasûl Allâh (none has the right to be worshipped but Allah and that Muhammad is Allah's Apostle), to offer Salat (obligatory prayer five times daily), to give Zakat (alms, charity), to perform Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in one's lifetime), and to fast during the holy month of Ramadan. However, a hadith, like a revelation of the Qur'an, can be abrogated, and according to the tradition, jihad is given higher importance than three of the five pillars:

• Allah's Apostle was asked, "What is the best deed?" He replied, "To believe in Allah and His Apostle (Muhammad). The questioner then asked, "What is the next (in goodness)? He replied, "To participate in Jihad (religious fighting) in Allah's Cause." The questioner again asked, "What is the next (in goodness)?" He replied, "To perform Hajj (Pilgrim age to Mecca) 'Mubrur, (which is accepted by Allah and is performed with the intention of seeking Allah's pleasure only and not to show off and without committing a sin and in accordance with the traditions of the Prophet)."

• I asked Allah's Apostle, "O Allah's Apostle! What is the best deed?" He replied, "To offer the prayers at their early stated fixed times." I asked, "What is next in goodness?" He replied, "To be good and dutiful to your parents." I further asked, what is next in goodness?" He replied, "To participate in Jihad in Allah's Cause." I did not ask Allah's Apostle anymore and if I had asked him more, he would have told me more.

• The Prophet said, "No good deeds done on other days are superior to those done on these (first ten days of Dhul Hijja)." Then some companions of the Prophet said, "Not even Jihad?" He replied, "Not even Jihad, except that of a man who does it by putting himself and his property in danger (for Allah's sake) and does not return with any of those things."

Muslim Treatises on Jihad

Ibn Kathir, in his Tafsir of the Qur'an:

In this Ayah [Q2.216], Allah made it obligatory for the Muslims to fight in Jihad against the evil of the enemy who transgress against Islam. Az-Zuhri said, "Jihad is required from every person, whether he actually joins the fighting or remains behind. Whoever remains behind is required to give support, if support is warranted; to provide aid, if aid is needed; and to march forth, if he is commanded to do so. If he is not needed, then he remains behind." It is reported in the Sahih:
(Whoever dies but neither fought (i.e., in Allah's cause), nor sincerely considered fighting, will die a death of Jahiliyyah (pre-Islamic era of ignorance).)

Partially based on the Qur'anic verse and tradition of the prophet cited above by Ibn Kathir Muhammad Muhsin Khan, in his translations of the Qur'an and Sahih Bukhari, provides this commentary as the footnote to Qur'an 2.190 and the introduction to Bukhari's book of Jihad:

Al-Jihâd (holy fighting) in Allâh’s Cause (with full force of numbers and weaponry) is given the utmost importance in Islam and is one of its pillars (on which it stands). By Jihâd Islam is established, Allâh’s Word is made superior (His Word being Lâ ilaha illallâh which means none has the right to be worshipped but Allâh), and His religion (Islam) is propagated. By abandoning Jihâd (may Allâh protect us from that) Islam is destroyed and the Muslims fall into an inferior position; their honor is lost, their lands are stolen, their rule and authority vanish. Jihâd is an obligatory duty in Islam on every Muslim, and he who tries to escape from this duty, or does not in his innermost heart wish to fulfill this duty, dies with one of the qualities of a hypocrite.

Al-Ghazali (1058-1111 C.E.), a Sufi and a Maliki, often called Hujjatul Islam ("Proof of Islam"), one of the greatest Islamic scholars and jurists of all time:

...[O]ne must go on jihad (ie., warlike razzias or raids) at least once a year...If a person of the ahl-kitab [People of the book--Jews and Christians, typically] is enslaved, his marriage is [automatically] revoked...One may cut down their trees...One must destroy their useless books. Jihadists may take as booty whatever they decide...they may steal as much food as they need...
[On the dhimmis subjected by jihad]

...[T]he dhimmi is obliged not to mention Allah or His Apostle...Jews, Christians, and Majains must pay the jizya [poll tax on non-Muslims]...on offering up the jizya, the dhimmi must hang his head while the official takes hold of his beard and hits [the dhimmi] on the protruberant bone beneath his ear [ie., the mandible]...They are not permitted to ostentaniously display their wine or church bells...their houses may not be higher than a Muslim's, no matter how low that is. The dhimmi may not ride an elegant horse or mule; he may ride a donkey only if the saddle[-work] is of wood. He may not walk on the good part of the road. They [the dhimmis] have to wear [an identifying] patch [on their clothing], even women, and even in the [public] baths...[dhimmis] must hold their tongue

Ibn Taymiyya, one of the most influential scholars of Hanbali jurisprudence, praised by the hadith master Salah al-Din (Saladin) as "Our shaykh, master, and imam between us and Allah Almighty, the master of verification, the wayfarer of the best path, the owner of the multifarious merits and overpowering proofs which all hosts agree are impossible to enumerate, the Shaykh, the Imam and faithful servant of his Lord, the doctor in the Religion, the Ocean, the light-giving Pole of spirituality, the leader of imams, the blessing of the Community, the sign-post of the people of knowledge, the inheritor of Prophets, the last of those capable of independent legal reasoning, the most unique of the scholars of the Religion...":

The penalties that the shari'a has introduced for those who disobey God and his messenger are of two kinds: the punishment of those who are under the sway [of the imam], both individuals and collectivities, as has been mentioned before [in the chapter on criminal law], and, secondly, the punishment of recalcitrant groups, such as those that can only be brought under the sway of the imam by a decisive fight. That then is the jihad against the disbelievers (kafr), the enemies of God and His Messenger, Peace be upon him, and has not responded to it, must be fought, "until there is no persecution and the religion is God's entirely

The Hidayah of Shaikh Burhanuddin (1135-1196 CE), represents the Hanafi school of thought:

It is not lawful to make war upon any people who have never before been called to the faith, without previously requiring them to embrace it, because the Prophet so instructed his commanders, directing them to call the infidels to the faith, and also because the people will hence perceive that they are attacked for the sake of religion, and not for the sake of taking their property, or making slaves of their children, and on this consideration it is possible that they may be induced to agree to the call, in order to save themselves from the troubles of war ... If the infidels, upon receiving the call, neither consent to it nor agree to pay capitation tax, it is then incumbent on the Muslims to call upon God for assistance, and to make war upon them, because God is the assistant of those who serve Him, and the destroyer of His enemies, the infidels, and it is necessary to implore His aid upon every occasion; the Prophet, moreover, commands us so to do.

Al-Mawardi (978-1058 C.E.), a Shafi'i and one of the most famous Islamic minds of the middle ages, in al-Ahkam as-Sultaniyyah (Laws of Islamic Governance):

The amirate of jihad is particularly concerned with fighting the mushrikûn. This section deals with the direction of war. The mushrikûn of Dar al-Harb (the arena of battle) are of two types:

First, those whom the call of Islam has reached, but they have refused it and have taken up arms. The amir of the army has the option of fighting them in one of two ways, that is in accordance with what he judges to be in the best interest of the Muslims and most harmful to the mushrikûn; the first, to harry them from their houses and to inflict damage on them day and night, by fighting and burning, or else to declare war and combat them in ranks; Second, those whom the invitation to Islam has not reached, although such persons are few nowadays since Allah has made manifest the call of his Messenger - unless there are people to the east and extreme east, or to the west, of whom we have no knowledge, beyond the Turks and Romans we are fighting; it is forbidden us to initiate an attack on the mushrikûn while they are unawares or at night, that is, it is forbidden to kill them, use fire against them or begin to attack before explaining the invitation to Islam to them, informing them of the miracles of the Prophet and making plain proofs so as to encourage acceptance on their part; if they still refuse to accept after this, war is waged against them and they are treated as those whom the call has reached.

Averroes, or Ibn Rushd (1126-1198 C.E.), Andalusian-Arab philosopher and physician, a Maliki master of philosophy and Islamic law and author of the Bidayat al-Mujtahid:

Par. 1. The legal qualification (hukm) of this activity and the persons obliged to take part in it

Scholars agree that the jihad is a collective not a personal obligation. According to the majority of scholars, the compulsory nature of the jihad is founded on [K 2:216]: "Fighting is prescribed for you, though it is distasteful to you." That this obligation is a collective and not a personal one, i.e., that the obligation, when it can be properly carried out by a limited number of individuals, is cancelled for the remaining Muslims, is founded on [K9:122]: "It is not for the believers to march out all together..." The obligation to participate in the jihad applies to adult free men who have the means at their disposal to go to war and who are healthy, that is, not suffering from chronic diseases. There is absolutely no controversy about the latter restriction, because of [K 48:17]: "There is no blame upon the blind, or upon the lame, or upon the sick," and because of [K 9:91]: "No blame rests upon the frail or upon the sick or upon those who find nothing to contribute."

Par. 2. The Enemy

Scholars agree that all polytheists should be fought. This is founded on [K 8:39]: "Fight them until there is no persecution and the religion is entirely Allah's."

Par. 3. The damage allowed to be inflicted upon the different categories of enemies

Damage inflicted upon the enemy may consist in damage to his property, injury to his person or violation of his personal liberty, i.e., that he is made a slave and is appropriated. This may be done, according to the Consensus (ijma), to all polytheists: men, women, young and old, important and unimportant ... Most scholars are agreed that, in his dealing with captives, various policies are open to the Imam [head of the Islamic state, caliph]. He may pardon them, kill them, or release them either on ransom or as dhimmi [non-Muslim subject of the Islamic state], in which latter case the released captive is obliged to pay the poll tax [jizyah].

Ibn Khaldun (1332-1395 C.E), also a Maliki, described by Islamic scholar Bernard Lewis as surely the greatest of all Arab historians, in The Muqaddimah, which laid down the foundations of several fields of Islamic knowledge, including philosophy, history, sociology, and economics:

In the Muslim community, the holy war is a religious duty, because of the universalism of the (Muslim) mission and (the obligation to) convert everybody to Islam either by persuasion or by force. Therefore, caliphate and royal authority are united (in Islam), so that the person in charge can devote the available strength to both of them (religion and politics) at the same time. The other religious groups did not have a universal mission, and the holy war was not a religious duty to them, save only for purposes of defense. It has thus come about that the person in charge of religious affairs (in other religious groups) is not concerned with power politics at all. (Among them), royal authority comes to those who have it, by accident and in some way that has nothing to do with religion. It comes to them as the necessary result of group feeling, which by its very nature seeks to obtain royal authority, as we have mentioned before, and not because they are under obligation to gain power over other nations, as is the case with Islam. They are merely required to establish their religion among their own (people).

But those who disbelieve (wa'llazina kafaru) and belie Our Ayât (proofs, evidences, verses, lessons, signs, revelations, etc.) such are the dwellers of the Fire, they shall abide therein forever. (Q2.39)

Surely, they have disbelieved (la-gad kafar 'llazina) who say: "Allâh is the Messiah, son of Maryam (Mary)." But the Messiah said: "O Children of Israel! Worship Allâh, my Lord and your Lord." Verily, whosoever sets up partners in worship with Allâh, then Allâh has forbidden Paradise for him, and the Fire will be his abode. And for the Zâlimûn (wrong­doers) there are no helpers. (Q5.72)

Say (O Muhammad to these Mushrikûn and Kâfirûn): "O Al-Kâfirûn (disbelievers in Allâh)! I worship not that which you worship, Nor will you worship that which I worship. And I shall not worship that which you are worshipping. Nor will you worship that which I worship. To you be your religion, and to me my religion."

The Khalif is also commonly referred to as an Imam, or or al-Imamu 'l-A'zam (the Great Leader), particularly after the passing of the Rightly Guided, whom some regard as the only ones worthy of the title of Khalifa. The Khalifa ruled over the Muslims but was not their sovereign. That title could only belong to Allah. The Khalif was to be obeyed only so long as he ruled by the laws of Islam. Abu Bakr, upon becoming the first Khalif after the death of Muhammad, is related to have said, "Obey me as long as I obey God and His Messenger. When I disobey Him and His Prophet, then obey me not."

Once the rule of the Rightly Guided had passed, the next fourteen Khalifs ruled from Damascus, beginning with Mu'awiyah Ibn Abi Sufyan, grandson of Umayyah of the Quraysh (hence the name Umayyad caliphate (661-750 C.E.). Towards the end of the Umayyad caliphate, the Abbasids, who claimed descendancy from Muhammad's uncle `Abbas ibn `Abd al-Muttalib, had grown disaffected with what they considered the Umayyad's decadent rule and conduct. In most of the Muslim empire, save Al-Andalus (Muslim Spain, where a second Umayyad Caliphate was resurrected in Cordoba), the Umayyad's were supplanted by the Abbasids, who moved the Caliphate from Damascus to Baghdad. Here the next thirty seven Khalifs ruled, from 750-1258 C.E..

After the Damascus Umayyad's were overrun, a member of the fallen Caliphate, Abd al-Rahman I (ruled 756-788 C.E.), emigrated to al-Andalus (Islamic Spain), where he re-established an emirate in Cordoba. Nearly 150 years later, Abd al-Rahman III (ruled 912-961 C.E.) proclaimed himself Khalif in 921 and founded the Second Umayyad Caliphate (or the Caliphate of Cordoba) (929-1031 C.E.). The legitimacy of this Caliphate is called into question by the tradition of the prophet, cited above. The Second Umayyad Caliphate passed on after the death of Hisham III (1027-1031 C.E.), after which al-Andalus was fractured into a group of small, weak independent emirates, the last of which was "reconquered" (Reconquista) in 1492.

Turkish Rule

That, by tradition, the Khalif need be an Arab of the Quraysh tribe is essential, as, once the Seljuk Turks conquered the great seats of the Arab Caliphates - Damascus and Baghdad - and the Caliphate of Cordoba broke apart, the Caliphate ceased to exist for all intents and purposes. The Khalif then generally became known as Sultan (literally, "strength" or "might"); the Caliphate became a Sultanate.

The first ruler of what would come to be the Turkish sultanate was Osman I (1258-1326 C.E.), from whom the name Osmanli ("Ottoman") originates, who declared independence from the Abbasids and, along with his seccessors, conquered much of the Arab-Muslim world and finally finished off the Byzantines in 1453.

Ibn Khaldun, "surely the greatest of all Arab historians" (Bernard Lewis), praised the rise of the Turks, and the institution of slavery from which they came, as the embodiment of Allah's mercy:

When the [Abbasid] state was drowned in decadence and luxury ... and overthrown by the heathen Tatars ... because the people of the faith had become deficient in energy and reluctant to rally in defense ... then it was God's benevolence that He rescued the faith by reviving its dying breath and restoring the unity of the Muslims in the Egyptian realms ... He did this by sending to the Muslims, from among this Turkish nation and its great and numerous tribes, rulers to defend them and utterly loyal helpers, who were brought ... to the House of Islam under the rule of slavery, which hides in itself a divine blessing. By means of slavery they learn glory and blessing and are exposed to divine providence; cured by slavery, they enter the Muslim religion with the firm resolve of true believers and yet with nomadic virtues unsullied by debased nature, unadulterated by the filth of pleasure, undefiled by ways of civilied living, and with their ardor unbroken by the profusion of luxury.

The title of "sultan" was not first adopted until Mahmud of Ghazni (ruled 998-1030 C.E.), who was the great scourge of Hindustan. The last sultan of the Ottoman empire was Abdul Hamid II, who was deposed in 1909.

Importance in Islamic Cultural Identity

Recapturing the glory of Islam's past weighs heavily on the minds of Islamic fundamentalists. Most Americans, when they think of September 11, are reminded of horrific terrorist attacks on American soil that took the lives of 3,000 people. But before that day, the most significant event that took place on that date was the breaking of the seige of Vienna on September 11, 1683, by Jan III Sobieski, king of Poland. The Muslim defeat at Vienna represents the highwater mark of Islamic supremacy and domination. No doubt, for this reason, Bin Laden chose this date to attack America - to signal the resurgance of Islamic dominance throughout the world.

Similarly, in his speech the month following the September 11 attacks, Bin Laden said, "What America is tasting now is something insignificant compared to what we have tasted for scores of years. Our nation (umma) has been tasting this humiliation and this degradation for more than 80 years." About 86 years before September 11, the Ottoman Empire was defeated by the Great Powers in World War I and as a result had most of its empire partitioned in the Treaty of Lousanne, which eventually led to the creation of the state of Israel in 1948.

Today, the recreation of a united Islamic government ruled by a Khalif is among the goals of Islamic fundamentalist groups such as al-Muhajirun, the Taliban, al Qaeda, and even Islamic groups considered to be moderate, such as the Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR), who's founder, Omar Ahmad said, "Islam isn't in America to be equal to any other faith, but to become dominant. The Koran, the Muslim book of scripture, should be the highest authority in America, and Islam the only accepted religion on Earth." This is similar to others we deem to be extreme, such as the assassins of Anwar Sadat, who decorated their holding cells with banners saying, "Caliphate or death", and, again, Bin Laden, who said, "The pious caliphate will start in Afghanistan," and who's biographer, Abdullah Azzam, said Bin Laden's life "revolved around a single goal, namely the establishment of Allah's Rule on earth." The Algerian jihadist organization Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat, declared Taliban leader Mullah Omar to be the "caliph of Muslims."

Some Muslims believe that, before the Caliphate can be restored, a new Saladin must emerge to unite the warring factions within the camp of Islam against the camp of disbelievers, just a Saladin did in uniting the Muslims to destroy the Crusader Kingdoms centuries ago. Bin Laden was once seen as such an individual.

The Significance of Muhammad's Example in Islam

What we think we know about Muhammad is far more than we know about the actual historical figure. The first accounts of his life do not arise until 800 C.E., almost 200 years after he was born. Accounts of his deeds and sayings, as recorded in the hadith and the sira, are historically unreliable. Of course, the same could be said about Jesus, but what's important to remember is that in religion, perception is more important than reality; or, as Rodinson so aptly puts it, "ordinary humanity has never paid much attention to logic where ideologies are concerned".

Muhammad in Islam is known as al-insan al-kamil - the "perfect man" or the "best of men". His example is essentially divine as Allah in the Qur'an says he did not act except by the will and law of Allah.

• Your companion (Muhammad) has neither gone astray nor has erred. Nor does he speak of (his own) desire. It is only an Inspiration that is inspired. He has been taught (this Qur'ân) by one mighty in power [Jibrael (Gabriel)]. (Q53.2-3)

• Indeed in the Messenger of Allâh (Muhammad SAW) you have a good example to follow for him who hopes in (the Meeting with) Allâh and the Last Day and remembers Allâh much. (Q33.21)

• Say (O Muhammad to mankind): "If you (really) love Allâh then follow me (i.e. accept Islâm). Allâh will love you and forgive you of your sins. And Allâh is Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful."

In his tafsir, Ibn Kathir comments on Qur'an 53.2-3:

This part of the Ayah is the witness that the Messenger of Allah is sane and a follower of Truth. He is neither led astray, such as in the case of the ignorant who does not proceed on any path with knowledge, nor is he one who erred, such as in the case of the knowledgeable, who knows the Truth, yet deviates from it intentionally to something else. Therefore, Allah exonerated His Messenger and his Message from being similar to the misguided ways of the Christians and the erroneous paths of the Jews, such as knowing the Truth and hiding it, while abiding by falsehood. Rather, he, may Allah's peace and blessings be on him, and his glorious Message that Allah has sent him with, are on the perfect straight path, following guidance and what is correct.

Allah said,

(Nor does he speak of desire),

asserting that nothing the Prophet utters is of his own desire or wish,

(It is only a revelation revealed),

means, he only conveys to the people what he was commanded to convey, in its entirety without additions or deletions.

Thus, in addition to the revealed law in the Qur'an, Muslims are required to adhere to the Sunnah (literally, "a path" or "way"), which record the prophetic tradition: Sunnatu 'l-Fi'l, or what Muhammad did; Sunnatu 'l-Qaul, or what Muhammad enjoined; and Sunnatu 'l-Taqrir, or that which was done or said in the presence of the prophet he gave tacit approval to. These traditions are recorded in collections of hadith (reports of the sayings and deeds of Muhammad), which include the two Sahihs (Bukhari and Muslim), as well as many other collections of varied authority (Sunan Abu Dawud, Sunan at-Tirmidhi, etc.), and the sira (literally, "a road", but generally referred to as "the life of" or a biography, as in Sirat Rasul Allah - "The Life of the Apostle of Allah").

Muhammad's Character

Based strictly on the Muslim sources of the hadith and the sira, which are, in addition to the Qur'an, practically the only sources of biographical information on Muhammad's life and times available, we can piece together the type of person Islam's al-insan al-kamil was, with particular interest placed on his views and treatment of non-Muslims. These aspects of his character are what concerns us kafirun.

Based strictly on these sources, we find that Muhammad was a person who we in the West would consider a criminal against humanity; a complete and utter sociopath. He either actively participated or approved of what we in our time and place would consider unspeakable sins: theft, murder, ethnic cleansing, genocide, rape, and pedophilia. The vast majority of Muhammad's military involvements (maghazi) were offensive in nature.

Islamophiles and Muslims claim he was driven from his home, but this finds basis in reality only when viewed through the lense of Islamic theology; in reality, he was driven from his home because he threatened to uproot Mecca's cultural and economic stability. The Kaaba (cube), which then hosted Mecca's 300-plus pagan idols and is now the holiest site in Islam, was a source of income for the Quraysh, who were its guardian. Muhammad's attack on the divinity of these idols was interpreted as proof of his disregard for the interests of his community and his obligations to his tribe. He soon became viewed as a traitor. To put these circumstances into context, imagine a Christian traveling to Mecca and proclaiming that the religion of the Kabaa was defunct and in need of reform, offending not only local sensabilities but also the modern hajj business.

When word reached Muhammad and his followers that a council was being convened for the purpose of putting him on trial, he and a group of about seventy muhajirun, after recieving his first revelation allowing him to fight the Quraysh (Q22.39-41), emigrated to Yathrib (pre-Islamic Medina). Here he was given a plot of land to cultivate and had a house built for him where he and his followers could gather. But most of his followers had little in the way of trade skills, and had difficulty sustaining themselves. Thus Muhammad authorized a series of raids (maghazi) in order to provide for his underemployed followes and to exact revenge on the Quraysh.

After three unsuccessful raids, Muhammad led a surprise raid against a caravan during one of the sacred months of truce - Rajab. Back in Yathrib there was great unease over the shedding of blood during a sacred month, and Muhammad didn't touch the booty until he conveniently recieved a revelation absolving him of the crime (Q2.217). From this point Allah becomes deus ex machina, handing down revelations suitable to the needs of the moment and situation, from warring during sacred months to controlling his jealous wives (Q66.1-5).

The battle itself was unremarkable, except for the Meccans' woefully inept battle tactics (apparently they had a vast calvalry of horses and camels which they did not utilize), and the prophet's panic and incessant praying during the heat of the battle, for which Abu Bakr chastised him: "O prophet of God, your constant entreaty will annoy the Lord, for surely God will fulfil his promise to thee." The Qur'an and the tradition holds that God surely did fulfil his promise, providing the Muslims with a thousand angels to fight along side them (Q8.9)

Victorious, Muhammad took delight at the sight of his dead enemies. He gave orders to find Abu Jahl among the bodies. Muhammad gave thanks to God when Abu Jahl's head was thrown at his feet. As the dead were thrown into a mass grave, Muhammad rejoiced, saying, "O people of the pit, have you found that what God threatened is true? For I have found that what my Lord promised me is true!"

Muhammad now was left to deal with the prisoners and the booty. Allah advised him to be harsh with his enemies and made the plundering of their properties lawful (Q8.67). The first Muslims to get their hands on the loot were quick to claim it for their own, leaving many of Allah's warriors empty handed. There was a commotion. Muhammad tossed it all into a pile and divided it amongst them evenly, except for one-fifth which was always for Allah and his messenger (Q8.41).

The prisoners were brought before Muhammad, and he examined each of them. A Meccan named al-Nadr cought Muhammad's eye, and he looked upon him angrily. Nadr had been brazen enough to compare his own stories to Muhammad's while Muhammad had lived in Mecca, and Nadr's stories of the kings of Persia always gathered greater crowds. Knowing he was about to be killed, Nadr complained bitterly that, had the Quraysh taken the Muslims captive, they would not have killed them. "Even were it so," said Muhammad, "I am not as you and Islam has rent all bonds asunder," at which time al-Nadr was beheaded by Muhammad's companion, Ali.

Another prisoner, Uqba bin Abi Mu’ayt, had apparently thrown camel intestines on Muhammad once while Muhammad was at prayer in Mecca. Muhammad would have his revenge. "But who will look after my children, O Muhammad," he asked. "Hellfire," Muhammad said, and one of his companions killed him.

Back at Yathrib, small, insignificant grumblings of dissent started to arise, generally among some of the pagans; specifically among a pair of poets. Muhammad took a dim view of poets in general (this is reflected in several verses of the Qur'an), but Asma bint Marwan and Abu Afak raised his ire in particular. Afak, who was supposedly over 100 years old (or otherwise extremely old), mocked Muhammad in verse. Muhammad said, "Who will deal with this rascal for me?"' Salim b. Umayr, one of the 'weepers', went forth and killed him.

Hearing of Afak's murder, Asma bint Marwan lashed out against the people of Medina who followed Muhammad, wondering if there was "no man of honor who will take advantage of an unguarded moment and cut off the gulls hopes?" Muhammad heard of this and asked his followers, "Who will rid me of Marwan's daughter?" One of his followers went to her house that night and killed her. In the morning he returned to Muhammad and expressed apprehension about what he'd done. Muhammad said, "You have helped God and His apostle, O Umayr! Two goats won't but their heads about her!" Not two goats, but perhaps her five sons, one of which was still at her breast when Umayr drove his sword into her as she slept.

After another elderly poet, a Jew named Kab b. al-Ashraf, who had had the nerve to insult Muslim women in verse had been dealt with, Muhammad felt it was time to do away with the Jews, and ordered his followers to kill them wherever they could be found. Here we see the power of Muhammad's influence:

The apostle said, "Kill any Jew that falls into your power." Thereupon Muhayyisa b. Mas`ud leapt upon Ibn Sunaya, a Jewish merchant with whom he had social and business relations, and killed him. Huwayyisa was not a Muslim at the time though he was the elder brother. When Muhayyisa killed him Huwayyisa began to beat him, saying, "You enemy of God, why did you kill him when much of the fat on your belly comes from his wealth?" Muhayyisa answered, "Had the one who ordered me to kill him ordered me to kill you I would have cut your head off."

During the days after Badr, various tribes began amassing troops outside of Medina, but Muhammad sent expeditions to disrupt the would-be attackers and put them to flight before they were ready to attack. They captured much loot, including the attackers' wives.

Muhammad's men came upon a group of women who had been captured, and they desired them greatly. It was forbidden that a pregnant woman be sold into bondage, and for this reason they were reluctant to touch them. For some reason they felt it was OK to consult the prophet of God if it was permitted to rape them, so long as they observed al-'azl - (withdrawing the male sexual organ before emission of semen to avoid-conception). Muhammad said, "There is no harm if you do not practise it, for it (the birth of the child) is something ordained (by Allah)." Another hadith attests that Muhammad not only said there was no harm done, but encouraged them not to do it at all.

This crime is sanctioned by the Qur'an, which instructs Muslims that all married women are forbidden to them, except those ordained for them whom their right hand possesses (Q4.24).

Meanwhile, just after the hijrah, another disturbing characteristic of Muhammad emerged. Muhammad married his wife Aisha when she was but six years old, and the marriage was consumated (the prophet had intercourse with her) when she was nine. This story is related extensively in both Bukhari and Muslim. Indeed, because of Muhammad's marriage to Aisha, chapter 10 of Muslim's Kitab Al-Nikah (Book of Marriage) instructs Muslims, "It is permissible for the father to give the hand of his daughter in marriage even when she is not fully grown up."

Muhammad justifies this by claiming she appeared to him twice in a dream in which an angel brings Aisha to him wrapped in silk garments, and that this must mean it was Allah's will. Many apologists try to justify this unspeakable act of cruelty towards a young, developing child by stating that Abu Bakr, the girl's father, actually asked Muhammad to marry her in order to strengthen the ties between their two families, but another hadith states specifically that Muhammad asked Abu Bakr for 'Aisha's hand in marriage. Abu Bakr said "But I am your brother." The Prophet said, "You are my brother in Allah's religion and His Book, but she is lawful for me to marry."

Muhammad offers Muslims some sage wisdom for men looking to de-flower virgins, saying, as related by Bukhari, that a woman's consent is expressed by her silence. And, apparently, Muhammad had a fondness for young virgins and encouraged his followers to enjoy them.

After Badr, and numerous other expeditions, Muhammad was supremely confident in his power. He knew that no army from without could destroy him. However, the Jews had begun to cause Muhammad anxiety, since they had long since ceased participating in Muhammad's military expeditions. This is the extent of the "betrayal" of the Jews, who, in the Medina Charter, were bound to protect Muhammad as if he were one of their own, for "loyalty is a protection against treachery". That the vast majority of Muhammad's military involvements were offensive in nature mattered little; he was merely seeking an excuse to eliminate those that refused to acknowledge his Divine Authority. He changed the qiblah (direction Muslims must face when prostrating in prayer) from Jerusalem to Mecca (Q2.144), and warned the Jews that if they embraced Islam they would be safe, that the Earth belongs to Allah and his apostle and he intended to expell them fro Yathrib. They refused, and Muhammad promised to expel the Jews and Christians from the Arabian Peninsula, leaving no one but Muslims.

Muhammad's first target was the Banu Qaynuqa, who were skilled goldsmiths, blacksmiths, and in other crafts. Muhammad assembled them in the market and said to them, "O Jews, beware lest God bring upon you the vengeance that He brought upon the Quraysh [at Badr] and become Muslims." They replied, "Do not decieve yourself because you encountered a people [the Quraysh] with no knowledge of war and got the better of them; for by God if we fight you, you will find that we are real men!"

Maududi's introduction to surah 59 - Al Hashr (exile, banishment) - states that, somehow, this was in clear words a declaration of war, and Ishaq relates that their reply to Muhammad's warning made the Qaynuqa "the first of the Jews to break their agreement with the apostle and go to war", even though there was nothing in the Medina Chater that required Jews (or any other non-Muslims) to become Muslims. Muhammad besieged them for about two weeks, and eventually the Qaynuqa surrendered unconditionally. Muhammad exiled them from Yathrib, ordering them to leave their properties, armour and tools of trade behind.

Muhammad then turned his attention to the Banu Nadr. According to Maududi's introduction to surah 59, the Nadr were distressed by Muhammad's victory over the Quraysh at Badr. Kab b. al-Ashraf, chief of the Banu Nadr tribe, consulted with the Quraysh and, as mentioned earlier, composed amatory verses of an insulting nature about Muslim women, for which he was ordered killed by Muhammad. While visiting the Banu Nadr to collect a bloodwit owed to the Banu Amir, a group of Jews supposedly saw a chance to kill Muhammad and save themselves the fate of the Qaynuqa. Ishaq relates that as a man of the Nadr went to a rooftop to throw a rock upon Muhammad's head, "news came to him from heaven" about the plot, and Muhammad returned to Medina to rouse his army. Muhammad laid seige to their fort, cutting down and burning their palm trees, and the Nadr surrendered with the condition that they be allowed to leave Yathrib with whatever possessions they could fit on camels. Though, if these surely biased Muslim accounts are to believed, the Nadr did far more to deserve their punishment than the Banu Qaynuqa, objective readers will surely agree that the punishment, in both cases, far exceeded the crime.

Muhammad had only to wipe out the Banu Qurayza, surely his most heinous and disgraceful act, and Yathrib would be clear of the hated Jews. Though their punishment was by far the most harsh, the justifications for this crime were by far the most lame. Muslim sources relate that certain Jewish tribes aligned with the Quraysh and laid seige to Yathrib in the Battle of the Ditch, but the Qurayza were not among them. Qurayza's fortress, at the rear of Yathrib, was so massive and fortified that the trench the Muslims had dug in anticipation of the assault was not needed to protect that part of the city.

Because of this, a man of the exiled Banu Nadr tribe, Huyayy b. Akhtab al-Nadri, went to speak to the head of the Banu Qurayza, Ka'b b. Asad al-Qurazi, but found the door of their fort shut in his face. Ka'b was extremely relectant to even speak with Huyayy, but eventually, after much persuasion, including the promise that their army would not depart until Muhammad was killed, Ka'b supposedly relented and agreed that, if they could not overcome the trench, the Quraysh would let them in through their fortress. The factual basis for this seems sketchy at best, since it is never related how Muhammad actually recieved word of this, or from whom. Regardless, Muhammad sent two men to assess the situation, and they apparently found the situation worse than was previously believed, as the Quraysh supposedly spoke disparagingly of Muhammad, saying, "Who is the apostle of God? We have no agreement or undertaking with Muhammad." Given what Muhammad had done to the Banu Qaynuqa and the Banu Nadr, this should be of little surprise. Muhammad continued to insist that the Medina Charter be recognized by the Jews, while in turn making clear that he would not honor it himself. Indeed, the attitude of the Qurayza delighted Muhammad, who said, "Allahu Akbar! Be of good cheer, you Muslims."

The battle itself wasn't much of a battle, since the ditch prevented the Meccans from attacking the city with their calvalry, and the infantry had probably marched to war under the impression the calvalry would do the bulk of the fighting and were disheartened by the sight of the ditch, hurling curses at it. For nearly a month the only fighting that took place was the exchanging of arrows.

The real struggle was diplomatic, as the forces of the Quraysh continued to try to convince the Qurayza to allow them access to Yathrib through their gates. Despite the contention that the Qurayza had agreed to allow the Quraysh access, they never fulfilled their promise. This regardless was a constant source of anxiety for Muhammad, since the seige was beginning to go bad for him; food was running scarce, and his men began openly complaining that, though Muhammad had promised them "the treasures of Chosroes (the king of Persia) and Caesar", they could not feel safe in their own city. Muhammad began sending emissaries to the various tribes aligned with the Quraysh, offering, for example, the leaders of Ghatafan a third of the dates from Medina if they would stand down. His men became angry that such a gift was offered to the polytheists, swaring to give them nothing but the sword and that God would decide between them. The offer was thus renegged. Fortunately for the Muslims, the Quraysh were not given access to the fortress of the Banu Qurayza, and they could not overcome the ditch. Abu Sufyan's horses soon ran out of food, as the Muslims had harvested all of their barley and dates in anticipation of the seige, and his men were weary. Finally a violent sandstorm struck and they went home.

Just one day after the Meccan coalition went home, the angel Gabriel admonished Muhammad for not finishing his enemies off. But the Voice wasn't talking about the Meccans. "God commands you, Muhammad, to go to B. Qurayza. I am about to go to them to shake their stronghold."

Again it should be noted that this was all based on rumor, and should be especially noted that, the Quraysh having never stepped foot in Yathrib, the Qurayza obviously never fulfilled their promise to them, if in fact the promise was ever made. In fact, Ishaq relates that the Qurayza were extremely reluctant to join with the Quraysh, because they lacked the strength to fight the Muslims should the Quraysh be put to flight. Ishaq relates that Abu Sufyan, leader of the Quraysh coalition, said, "O Quraysh, we are not in a permanent camp; the horses and camels are dying; the B. Qurayza have broken their word to us and we have heard disquieting reports of them."

As Muhammad approached their forts he called out to them, "You brothers of monkeys, has God disgraced you and brought His vengeance upon you?" Brothers or descendants of apes and pigs is a common label given to Jews by Muslims, and besides the Qur'an itself (Q5.60) we see another example of where this originates from. "O Abu'l-Qasim [Muhammad]," they replied, "You are not a barbarous person." They were mistaken. Muhammad laid seige to their village for 25 nights, despite the steadfast denials of the Quraysh that they had conspired with Abu Sufyan against the prophet, which, the evidence shows, they didn't. Eventually they surrendered with the hope that Muhammad would show "mercy" and allow them to leave unharmed, as he had allowed the Banu Qaynuqa and Banu Nadr. Muhammad sent an emissary to the Qurayza who, to his later dismay, revealed Muhammad's intentions to them by pointing to his throat, signifying Muhammad's intent to slaughter them.

The next morning a man named al-Aus protested that the Qurayza deserved mercy, considering how Muhammad had treated the Qaynuqa and Nadr. Muhammad agreed to delegate the matter to a man who was of al-Aus' people, Sa'd b. Mu'adh. This was a disasterous choice for the Qurayza. Sa'd was a devoted companion of Muhammad, among those who protested the deal made with the Ghatafan, and who, after being mortally-wounded by an arrow during the seige, asked God not to make him a martyr before he had seen his desire upon the Banu Qurayza. Sa'd declared that, "The time has come for Sa'd in the cause of God, not to care for any man's censure." He ruled that "the men should be killed, the property divided, and the women and children taken as captives." Muhammad told him, "You have given the judgement of Allah above the seven heavens."

Trenches were dug in the market of Medina, and all males who had developed public hair - anywhere between 600 and 900 "men" - were beheaded and tossed inside them. As noted earlier, captivity was not a pleasant fate for the women. Allah had made lawful those whom their right hand possesses, and no logical, objective observer could possibly assume that sexual relations Muslims had with these women, who had just witnessed the beheading of their sons, brothers, and husbands at the hands of these animals, were consentual. Muhammad himself took one of the women, Rayhana 'Amr b. Khunafa, who remained in his power until he died, refusing to marry him. And, as had become by now typical, the ethnic cleansing and genocide of the Jews of Medina was subsequently absolved by a revelation from God, who said it was the fault of the Jews for aiding the disbelievers (Q33.26).

Muhammad was not content with his eventual total victory over the Quraysh, nor was he satisfied that the Jews had been cleansed from his dominion. He was nearing the end of his life, yet this was no time for quiet reflection and reconciliation. He ordered his armies forth to the rest of the world. He sent two expeditions to Syria - one in which he commanded himself. The Byzantines at the time posed no threat to the Arabs, having been involved in a disasterous war with the Sassanids (Persia), and were probably completely unaware of Muhammad before the prophet started sending emmisaries to the empire calling them to surrender to Islam. One such letter is preserved by Bukhari:

In the name of Allah the Beneficent, the Merciful (This letter is) from Muhammad the slave of Allah and His Apostle to Heraclius the ruler of Byzantine. Peace be upon him, who follows the right path. Furthermore I invite you to Islam, and if you become a Muslim you will be safe, and Allah will double your reward, and if you reject this invitation of Islam you will be committing a sin by misguiding your Arisiyin (peasants). (And I recite to you Allah's Statement:) 'O people of the scripture! Come to a word common to you and us that we worship none but Allah and that we associate nothing in worship with Him, and that none of us shall take others as Lords beside Allah. Then, if they turn away, say: Bear witness that we are Muslims (those who have surrendered to Allah).' (Q3:64).

A similar letter had been sent to Shorhail, the Byzantine ruler of the Christian tribe of Ghassan in Syria. When Shorhail recieved the letter, he had Muhammad's emmisary executed. Outraged, Muhammad sent an army of 3,000 to demand reparations, but his expedition was heavily outnumbered and put to rout by the Romans at the Battle of Muta. Those who returned were mocked and humiliated for turning their backs to the enemy. Two years later, during an oppressively hot drought, Muhammad personally led another expedition to Tabuk, on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire. But the Byzantines considered the battle of Muta to be nothing more than a squabble with a band of rogue Arab warriors and the frontier was left completely abandoned. Tradition tells us that this is because the Battle of Muta was such a titanic battle that the Romans retreated their garrisons in fear. After a council discussion on what to do next, Muhammad decided to return to Medina.

The expedition to Tabuk was Muhammad's final campaign. Tradition holds that in 628 after the expedition of Khaibar he was either poisoned by his Jewish slave-wife or by the entire tribe as a whole, and supposedly, 3 or 4 years later in 632, the poison began to weaken and kill the prophet.

Among Allah's final revelations was the command that any Muslim who befriends a Jew or Christian will become of their number (Q5.51), as well as Muhammad's injunction that two religions may not reside in Arabia at the same time (i.e. - Islam only, an injunction that is among Bin Laden's chief grievances against America). On his deathbed, Muhammad exhorted his followers to continue the expansion of Islam, with a special emphasis on the greatest power in the world, the Roman Empire. He promised salvation for those who invaded Constantinople.

Muhammad died in 632 C.E..

• Those who believe, fight in the Cause of Allâh, and those who disbelieve, fight in the cause of Tâghût (Satan, etc.). (Q4.73)

• Not equal are those of the believers who sit (at home), except those who are disabled (by injury or are blind or lame, etc.), and those who strive hard and fight in the Cause of Allâh with their wealth and their lives. Allâh has preferred in grades those who strive hard and fight with their wealth and their lives above those who sit (at home). Unto each, Allâh has promised good, but Allâh has preferred those who strive hard and fight, above those who sit (at home) by a huge reward: Degrees of (higher) grades from Him, and Forgiveness and Mercy. And Allâh is Ever Oft­Forgiving, Most Merciful. (Q4.95-96)

• March forth, whether you are light (being healthy, young and wealthy) or heavy (being ill, old and poor), strive hard with your wealth and your lives in the Cause of Allâh. This is better for you, if you but knew. (Q9.41)

• Verily, Allâh has purchased of the believers their lives and their properties; for the price that theirs shall be the Paradise. They fight in Allâh's Cause, so they kill (others) and are killed. It is a promise in truth which is binding on Him in the Taurât (Torah) and the Injeel (Gospel) and the Qur'ân. And who is truer to his covenant than Allâh? Then rejoice in the bargain which you have concluded. That is the supreme success. (Q9.111)

From the tradition:

• I heard Allah's Apostle saying, "The example of a Mujahid in Allah's Cause - and Allah knows better who really strives in His Cause - is like a person who fasts and prays continuously. Allah guarantees that He will admit the Mujahid in His Cause into Paradise if he is killed, otherwise He will return him to his home safely with rewards and war booty."

• [Muhammad] said, "Paradise has one-hundred grades which Allah has reserved for the Mujahidin who fight in His Cause, and the distance between each of two grades is like the distance between the Heaven and the Earth. So, when you ask Allah (for something), ask for Al-firdaus, which is the best and highest part of Paradise."

When the hypocrites come to you (O Muhammad), they say: "We bear witness that you are indeed the Messenger of Allâh." Allâh knows that you are indeed His Messenger and Allâh bears witness that the hypocrites are liars indeed. They have made their oaths a screen (for their hypocrisy). Thus they hinder (men) from the Path of Allâh. Verily, evil is what they used to do. That is because they believed, then disbelieved, therefore their hearts are sealed, so they understand not. And when you look at them, their bodies please you; and when they speak, you listen to their words. They are as blocks of wood propped up. They think that every cry is against them. They are the enemies, so beware of them. May Allâh curse them! (Q63.1-4)

Of these verses Ibn Kathir comments,

The Case of the Hypocrites and their Behavior

Allah the Exalted states that the hypocrites pretended to be Muslims when they went to the Prophet. In reality, they were not Muslims, but rather the opposite. This is why Allah the Exalted said,

(When the hypocrites come to you, they say: "We bear witness that you are indeed the Messenger of Allah.")

meaning, `when the hypocrites come to you, they announce this statement and pretend to believe in it.' Allah informs that there is no substance to their statement, and this is why He said,

(Allah knows that you are indeed His Messenger,)

then said,

(And Allah bears witness that the hypocrites are liars indeed),

meaning, their claims, even though it is true about the Prophet. But they did not believe inwardly in what they declared outwardly, and this is why Allah declared their falsehood about their creed. Allah's statement,

(They have made their oaths a screen. Thus they hinder (others) from the path of Allah),

meaning, the hypocrites shield themselves from Muslims when they falsely and sinfully swear to be what they are not in reality. Some Muslims were deceived because they did not know their falsehood, and thus, thought that they were Muslims. Some Muslims believed what hypocrites say and even imitated them in their outward behavior. However, inwardly, hypocrites seek the destruction of Islam and its people, and this is why trusting them might bring great harm to many people. This is why Allah said next,

(Thus they hinder (others) from the path of Allah. Verily, evil is what they used to do.) ,

Allah said,

(That is because they believed, and then disbelieved; therefore their hearts are sealed, so they understand not.)

meaning, He has decreed them to be hypocrites because they reverted from faith to disbelief and exchanged guidance for misguidance. Therefore, Allah stamped and sealed their hearts and because of it, they cannot comprehend the guidance, nor any goodness can reach their hearts.

(And when you look at them, their bodies please you; and when they speak, you listen to their words),

meaning, hypocrites have a graceful outer appearance and are eloquent. When one hears them speak, he will listen to their eloquent words, even though hypocrites are truly weak and feeble, full of fear, fright and cowardice.

And also on Qur'an 8.22-23,

Allah commands His believing servants to obey Him and His Messenger and warns them against defying him and imitating the disbelievers who reject him. Allah said,
(and turn not away from him...),

neither refrain from obeying him or following his commands nor indulge in what he forbade,

(while you are hearing.)

after you gained knowledge of his Message,

(And be not like those who say: "We have heard," but they hear not.)

Ibn Ishaq said that this Ayah refers to the hypocrites, who pretend to hear and obey, while in fact they do neither. Allah declares that these are the most wicked creatures among the Children of Adam,

(Verily, the worst of living creatures with Allah are the deaf)

who do not hear the truth,

(and the dumb)

who cannot comprehend it,

(who understand not.)

These indeed are the most wicked creatures, for every creature except them abide by the way that Allah created in them. These people were created to worship Allah, but instead disbelieved. This is why Allah equated them to animals, when He said,

(And the example of those who disbelieve is as that of him who shouts to those that hear nothing but calls and cries.) [2:171],

and,

(They are like cattle, nay even more astray; those! They are the heedless ones.) [7:179]

It was also said that the Ayah (8:22) refers to some of the pagans of Quraysh from the tribe of Bani `Abd Ad-Dar, according to Ibn `Abbas, Mujahid and Ibn Jarir. Muhammad bin Ishaq said that this Ayah refers to hypocrites, as we stated. There is no contradiction here, because both disbelievers and hypocrites are devoid of sound comprehension, in addition to having lost the intention to do good. Allah states here that such are those who neither have sound understanding nor good intentions, even if they have some type of reason,

(Had Allah known of any good in them, He would indeed have made them listen.)

He would have helped them understand. However, this did not happen because there is no goodness in such people, for Allah knows that,

(even if He had made them listen...)

and allowed them to understand,

(they would but have turned...),

intentionally and out of stubbornness, even after they comprehend,

(with aversion.),

to the truth.

• And they (Jews, Christians and pagans) say: Allâh has begotten a son (children or offspring). Glory be to Him (Exalted be He above all that they associate with Him). Nay, to Him belongs all that is in the heavens and on earth, and all surrender with obedience (in worship) to Him. (2.116)

• Yet, they join the jinns as partners in worship with Allâh, though He has created them (the jinns), and they attribute falsely without knowledge sons and daughters to Him. Be He Glorified and Exalted above (all) that they attribute to Him. He is the Originator of the heavens and the earth. How can He have children when He has no wife? He created all things and He is the All-Knower of everything. (Q6.100-101)

• Say (O Muhammad): "He is Allâh, (the) One. Allâh-us-Samad (The Self-Sufficient Master, Whom all creatures need, He neither eats nor drinks). He begets not, nor was He begotten. And there is none co-equal or comparable unto Him." (Q112.1-4)

• The prophet said, "Allah said, 'The son of Adam tells lies against Me though he has no right to do so, and he abuses Me though he has no right to do so. As for his telling lies against Me, he claims that I cannot recreate him as I created him before; as for his abusing Me, it is his statement that I have a son (or offspring). No! Glorified is Me! I am far from taking a wife or a son (or offspring).'" (Bukhari)

• Verily! Allâh forgives not (the sin of) setting up partners in worship with Him, but He forgives whom he pleases sins other than that, and whoever sets up partners in worship with Allâh, has indeed strayed far away. (Q4.116)

In the Qur'an it was used almost exclusively for the Meccan pagans, however, since Christians are also accused of the crime of shirk in the Qur'an, traditionally they also fall into this definition:

Surely, they have disbelieved who say: "Allâh is the Messiah (Jesus), son of Maryam (Mary)." But the Messiah (Jesus) said: "O Children of Israel! Worship Allâh, my Lord and your Lord." Verily, whosoever sets up partners in worship with Allâh, then Allâh has forbidden Paradise for him, and the Fire will be his abode. (Q5.72-73)

Ibn Kathir comments on Qur'an 5.72-73:

Allah states that the Christians such sects as Monarchite, Jacobite and Nestorite are disbelievers, those among them who say that `Isa is Allah. Allah is far holier than what they attribute to Him. They made this claim in spite of the fact that `Isa made it known that he was the servant of Allah and His Messenger. The first words that `Isa uttered when he was still a baby in the cradle were, "I am `Abdullah (the servant of Allah)." He did not say, "I am Allah,'' or, "I am the son of Allah." Rather, he said,
(Verily, I am a servant of Allah, He has given me the Scripture and made me a Prophet.)

until he said,

("And verily Allah is my Lord and your Lord. So worship Him (Alone). That is the straight path.")

He also proclaimed to them when he was a man, after he was sent as a Prophet, commanding them to worship his Lord and their Lord, alone without partners,

(But the Messiah said, "O Children of Israel! worship Allah, my Lord and your Lord." Verily, whosoever sets up partners with Allah...)

in worship;

(...then Allah has forbidden Paradise for him, and the Fire will be his abode),

as He will send him to the Fire and forbid Paradise for him. Allah also said;

(Verily, Allah forgives not that partners should be set up with Him (in worship), but He forgives except that (anything else) to whom He wills) [Q4.116]

Allah's statement,

(Surely, they have disbelieved who say: "Allah is the third of three.")

Mujahid and several others said that this Ayah was revealed about the Christians in particular. As-Suddi and others said that this Ayah was revealed about taking `Isa and his mother as gods besides Allah, thus making Allah the third in a trinity. As-Suddi said, "This is similar to Allah's statement towards the end of the Surah,

(And (remember) when Allah will say: "O `Isa, son of Maryam! Did you say unto men: `Worship me and my mother as two gods besides Allah?' He will say, 'Glory be to You!)[5:116]

Allah replied,

(But there is no god but One God),

meaning there are not many worthy of worship but there is only One God without partners, and He is the Lord of all creation and all that exists. Allah said next, while threatening and admonishing them,

(And if they cease not from what they say,)

their lies and false claims,

(verily, a painful torment will befall the disbelievers among them)

in the Hereafter, shackled and tormented."

Traditionally, the Mushrikûn are not accorded the privileges the people of the book (ahl al-kitab) are, even though Christians are considered to be believers of the scripture. Presumably, Muhammad considered only those Christians who did not believe in the divinity of Christ to be ahl al-kitab. While the people of the book are accorded three choices when facing jihad (conversion, dhimmi status, or death) (Q9.29), the Mushrikûn are only offered conversion or death:

Then when the Sacred Months have passed, kill the Mushrikûn wherever you find them, and capture them and besiege them, and prepare for them each and every ambush. But if they repent and perform As-Salât, and give Zakât, then leave their way free. Verily, Allâh is Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful. (Q9.5)

These verses essentially state that Allah has altered, replaced or outright cancelled earlier verses with ones "better or similar". The earlier, abrogated verse is thus known as mansukh - literally, the cancelled, withdrawn, or replaced. The new, abrogating "better or similar" verse is nasikh. For instance, Qur'an 2.190 commands Muslims to "fight in the way of Allah those that fight you," but scholars argue this verse was abrogated by Qur'an 9.5, which says, "kill the Mushrikûn wherever you find them," and Qur'an 9.36, which says, "fight against the Mushrikûn collectively, as they fight against you collectively." Surah 9 having been revealed after surah 2. In fact, according to Ad-Dahhak bin Muzahim as cited in Tafsir Ibn Kathir, verse 9.5, the Ayah of the Sword, "abrogated every agreement of peace between the Prophet and any idolator, every treaty, and every term."

This concept is perhaps the most controversial in all of Islamic jurisprudence. Depending on who you ask, as many as 260 verses in the Qur'an have been abrogated, or as little as 5. It is not so much that Allah changed his mind - how or why would God change His mind? Is he not the source of all knowledge, truth, justice, morality and wisdom? Obviously it would make no sense that he changed his mind, since the truth of all things are known to him at all times. Scholars generally agree that naskh applies to certain situations experienced through the progression of Muhammad's prophecy. For instance, Qur'an 47.35 instructs Muslims, "Be not weak and ask not for peace while you are having the upper hand."

In Mecca, the ummah (Muslim community) was too weak to do anything except endure insults and eventually threats, and thus Allah instructs them accordingly:

• Invite (mankind) to the Way of your Lord with wisdom and fair preaching, and argue with them in a way that is better. Truly, your Lord knows best who has gone astray from His Path, and He is the Best Aware of those who are guided. And if you punish (your enemy), then punish them with the like of that with which you were afflicted. But if you endure patiently, verily, it is better for As-Sâbirin (the patient ones, etc.) (Q16.125-126)

• And argue not with the people of the Scripture, unless it be in (a way) that is better (with good words and in good manner, inviting them to Islâmic Monotheism with His Verses), except with such of them as do wrong, and say (to them): "We believe in that which has been revealed to us and revealed to you; our Ilâh (God) and your Ilâh (God) is One (i.e. Allâh), and to Him we have submitted." (Q29.46)

• So leave them [the disbelievers] alone till they meet their Day, in which they will sink into a fainting (with horror). (Q52.45)

• And be patient with what they say, and keep away from them in a good way. And leave Me Alone to deal with the beliers (those who deny My Verses, etc.), and those who are in possession of good things of life. And give them respite for a little while. (Q73.10-11)

• Say (O Muhammad to these Mushrikûn and Kâfirûn): "O Al-Kâfirûn (disbelievers in Allâh)! I worship not that which you worship, Nor will you worship that which I worship. And I shall not worship that which you are worshipping. Nor will you worship that which I worship. To you be your religion, and to me my religion."

In Medina, Muhammad had acquired the power to hit back at his enemies, and thus the commandments became more harsh:

• And fight them until there is no more Fitnah and (all and every kind of) worship is for Allâh (Alone). (Q2.193; Q8.39)

• We shall cast terror into the hearts of those who disbelieve, because they joined others in worship with Allâh, for which He had sent no authority; their abode will be the Fire, and evil is the abode of the unjust. And Allâh did indeed fulfil His Promise to you when you were killing them (your enemy) by His permission. (Q3.151-152)

• The recompense of those who wage war against Allâh and His messenger and strive to make mischief in the land is only that they shall be killed or crucified or their hands and their feet be cut off on opposite sides, or be exiled from the land. That is their disgrace in this world, and a great torment is theirs in the hereafter. (Q5.33)

• (Remember) when your Lord revealed to the angels, "Verily, I am with you, so keep firm those who have believed. I will cast terror into the hearts of those who have disbelieved, so strike off their heads and strike off all their fingertips and toes. This is because they defied and disobeyed Allâh and His Messenger. And whoever defies and disobeys Allâh and His Messenger, then verily, Allâh is severe in punishment. (Q8.12-13)

• Fight them, Allâh will punish them by your hands and bring them to disgrace, and assist you against them and heal the hearts of a believing people. (Q9.14)

And thus there is a progression to the revelation, starting with tolerant, peaceful, and pleading verses regarding disbelievers when the Muslims lacked power, progressing to harsh, hateful, and violent verses towards disbelievers when the Muslims gained power over them. This is a core tenet of Islamic jurisprudence, and we see it played out in modern times: as the percieved power of the ummah grows, the ummah progressively becomes more aggressive and violent; the number of militant jihadists grows.

Not equal are those of the believers who sit (at home), except those who are disabled (by injury or are blind or lame, etc.), and those who strive hard and fight in the Cause of Allâh with their wealth and their lives. Allâh has preferred in grades those who strive hard and fight with their wealth and their lives above those who sit (at home). Unto each, Allâh has promised good, but Allâh has preferred those who strive hard and fight, above those who sit (at home) by a huge reward: Degrees of (higher) grades from Him, and Forgiveness and Mercy. And Allâh is Ever Oft­Forgiving, Most Merciful. (Q4.95-96)

It is permissable for Muslims to stay behind if they are physically unable to fight, or if their assistance is not needed:

And it is not (proper) for the believers to go out to fight (Jihâd) all together. Of every troop of them, a party only should go forth, that they (who are left behind) may get instructions in (Islâmic) religion, and that they may warn their people when they return to them, so that they may beware (of evil). (Q9.122)

However, those who remain behind must sincerely wish to go forth and lement their being left behind. Ibn Kathir emphasizes jihad's obligatory status in his tafsir:

In this Ayah [Q2.216], Allah made it obligatory for the Muslims to fight in Jihad against the evil of the enemy who transgress against Islam. Az-Zuhri said, "Jihad is required from every person, whether he actually joins the fighting or remains behind. Whoever remains behind is required to give support, if support is warranted; to provide aid, if aid is needed; and to march forth, if he is commanded to do so. If he is not needed, then he remains behind." It is reported in the Sahih:
(Whoever dies but neither fought (i.e., in Allah's cause), nor sincerely considered fighting, will die a death of Jahiliyyah (pre-Islamic era of ignorance).)

Those who remain behind out of cowardice or, though they were not needed, are pleased to not participate, are munafiqûn (hypocrites).

Abu Bakr (632-634 C.E.)

Under Abu Bakr, expeditions that were halted due to the deteriorating health of the prophet were again set in motion, despite growing unrest among the surrounding tribes of Medina which had submitted to Islam under Muhammad but ceased to pay the Zakat once he had died and had started following other "prophets" trying to assert their authority. These would ultimately be dealt with, but first Abu Bakr sent his armies into Syria.

The Sassanids of Persia and the Byzantines (the Eastern Roman Empire) were two decadent and aging empires, ripe for conquest from the fresh, enthusiastic Muslim invaders. After the apostasizing tribes were dealt with (often called the Riddah Wars), Bakr attacked Damascus, and, though defeated there, later defeated the Byzantines at Ajnadin in Palestine, paving the way for the future conquest of all of Syria, though Abu Bakr did not live to learn of this victory. Strangely, despite their supposed exhalted status in Islamic tradition, Abu Bakr is the only one of the Rightly Guided not killed by an assassin.

Umar ibn al-Khattab (634-644 C.E)

Continuing the conquest put in motion by his predecessor, within two years Umar captures Damascus along with the rest of Syria, which was systematically pillage and its populations put to the sword. According to Michael the Syrian, "The [Arabs] grew rich, increased and overran the lands which they took from the Romans and which were given over to pillage." After the fall of Damascus, Michael wrote:

Umar [Ibn al-Khattab] sent Khalid [b. Walid] with an army to the Aleppo and Antioch region. There, they murdered a large number of people. No one escaped them. Whatever may be said of the evils that Syria suffered, they cannot be recounted because of their great number, for the [Arabs] were the great rod of God's wrath.

Meanwhile, the campaign in Persia continued. Defeating the Sassanids at Qadsiyia in 636, the Muslims gained access to all of Mesopotamia. Monasteries were pillaged, monks killed, and Monophysite Arabs slaughtered, enslaved, or forced to convert. The population was decimated in Elam, and notables in Susa were put to death. In 638 the capitol Ctesiphon is taken, but the Sassanids, despite their losses, are not defeated yet.

Around the same time, Umar, lacking adequate armament to take any major cities, plundered the Palestinian countryside, devestating the area between Gaza and Caesaria. Four thousand peasants died defending their lands and thousands more died due to the resulting famine and plague. The gates of Jerusalem, Gaza, Jaffa, Caesarea, Nablus, and Beth Shean were shut. Of the Christians' inability of making the pilgrimage to Bethlahem, as was custom at Christmas, the patriarch Sophronius of Jerusalem lamented their isolation, "not detained by tangible bonds, but chained and nailed by fear of the Saracens" and their "savage, barbarous and bloody sword". Jerusalem laid under seige for two years and the surrounding countryside was subjected to perpetual attack. Throughout the entire region, towns were destroyed and their inhabitants were killed or taken captive; the contingients of enslaved women and children swelled. Sophronius later referred to the invaders as "godless barbarians who burnt churches, destroyed monasteries, profaned crosses, and horribly blasphemed against Christ and the church."

In 638 Jerusalem was ready to fall, but the patriarch refused to surrender to anyone except the Caliph himself. Umar traveled to Jerusalem, and in return for the city's surrender, agreed not to seize, occupy, or destroy the city's churches, nor their crosses; the Muslims would not hinder Christians from the practice of their religion. Those who wanted to leave could do so safely; those who stayed were of course forced to pay the jizyah.

As Palestine and Persia lay in ruin Umar sent his general Amr ibn Al-Asi into Egypt. Unfortunately for the Christians living there, Egypt was in the midst of a ten-year religious war, and Byzantine's Catholic authorities had persecuted the Monophysite Christians (the patriarch of Alexandria, Benjamin, was in exile) to the point that, once Amr's army arrived in 639, many Christians viewed the Muslims as liberators. The Muslims took Pelusium, Bilbays and Babylon (Old Cairo). The population of Behnesa was exterminated. In Alexandria, churches were torched, including the church of Saint Mark, where he was laid to rest. A disputed tale tells us of how Amr had learned of a great library containing "all the knowledge of the world", erected in the third century containing some 700,000 scrolls. He asked Umar for instructions, and Umar's judgement was that "[the scrolls] will either contradict the Qur’an, in which case they are heresy, or they will agree with it, so they are superfluous," and ordered the Royal Library of Alexander destroyed.

In Nikiu, though there was no military presence in the town, they proceeded to put to the sword all whom they found in the streets and in the churches, men, women, and infants, showing mercy to none. Echoing Michael the Syrian, John, Bishop of Nikiu, chronicled the carnage, overwhelmed by the magnitude of the suffering:

Let us now cease, for it is impossible to recount the iniquities perpetrated by the Moslem after their capture of the island of Nakius [Nikiu] on Sunday, the eighteenth day of the month Genbôt, in the fifteenth year of the cycle, and also the horrors committed in the city of Caesarea in Palestine ... [T]he yoke they laid on the Egyptians was heavier than the yoke which had been laid on Israel by Pharaoh.

Tripoli was ransacked in 643; Carthage was destroyed and most of its population slaughtered.

As Egypt was being subdued, the last Sassanid King, Yezdegird III, raised an army of 150,000 to counterattack the Muslim invasion. At the battle of Nihiwand, 641 CE., with a force one-fifth of the Persians, the Muslims trapped Yezdegird's army in narrow gorges and massacred them. Yezdegird fled eastward, and in 652 was murdered by thieves. Sassanid Persia passed away. The Muslims converted temples into mosques and imposed the Arabic language and script onto them

In 643, Umar conquers Azarbaijan and Tabaristan, today a former Soviet Republic and a northern region of Iran on the Caspian Sea, respectively. According to Armenian chroniclers, the Muslims, after ravaging the populations in Assyria and forcing large numbers of people to convert to Islam, "entered the District of Daron which they sacked, shedding rivers of blood. They extracted tribute and forced the women and children to be handed over to them ... a multitude of captives [numbering] thirty-five thousand." Umar invaded Armenia again the following year, "wreaking havoc, ruin and slavery." What seemed to be an unstopable advance through all of Armenia was halted by the murder of Umar by a Persian Christian slave in 644. At this point, in just 12 short years, Islam's empire expanded from a pair of Arabian jurisdictions to the whole of Arabia, west into Palestine and Egypt, east to Iraq and Iran and north to Syria and the Caucasus; a massive, unprecedented expansion.

'Uthman bin 'Affan (644-656 C.E.)

Besides the death of Umar, much of the Islamic expansion was slowed by a counter-invasion by the Byzantines in Syria and Egypt, which the Muslims under Uthman repelled. Uthman then sent his general, Habib b Maslama, who first served under Umar, back to Armenia, where he tore straight through to the Black Sea. The inhabitants were under no condition to resist, and laid down their arms agreeing to pay the jizyah. In Asia Minor, the Byzantines had abandoned their forts from Antioch to Tarsus along the Mediterranian, which were subsequently taken control of by Uthman's forces under the command of Muawiyah. The Muslims invaded the Island of Cyprus directly south, which they sacked and pillaged, establishing control by a "great massacre". With the eastern fort in Tarsus and a naval base in Cyprus, the Muslims continued to attack Byzantium, laying waste to Constantinople's surrounding countryside during repeated raids. Churches were desecrated and demolished. Gangres and Nicaea were devestated. Entire populations, particularly Pergamum and Sardes, were forced into bondage.

With the Byzantines expelled from Egypt and thus weakened, the rest of Byzantine's North African territory declared independence under King Gregory. Gregory's former Byzantine land stretched from Islamic Egypt to Morroco on the Atlantic coast. His reign was short-lived. The governor of Egypt, Abdullah b Sa'ad, sought permission from Uthman to wage jihad against the rest of North Africa. Uthman complied, and Gregory was no match for the Muslim armies. All of northwest Africa was put to fire and sword, though it took more than a century to subdue the Berber resistance.

‘Ali ibn Abi Talib (656-661 C.E.)

The second half of Uthman's rule was marred by rebelion, and, after a long seige, attackers broke into his home and murdered him. Many of the Muslims in Medina had preferred Ali over Abu Bakr upon the death of the prophet, and thus he was the natural choice to become Caliph, though he was reluctant being that most of those urging him to accept the title were among the rebels that conspired to kill Uthman. This all caused a great rift in the Islamic community, and Ali decided to dismiss all governors appointed by Uthman and replaced them with his own. Because Ali did not endeavor to avenge Uthman's murder, suspicion arose that Ali was behind his death, and thus he, too, was murdered during what has come to be known as the First Fitnah, a civil war that lasted five years and ultimately ended when Mu'awiyah Ibn Abi Sufyan, a relative of Uthman and governor of Syria, became the first of the Umayyad caliphate. See Khalifa for a brief history of the Caliphate following Ali's death.

The Prophet said, " ... Had I not found it difficult for my followers, then I would not remain behind any sariya going for Jihad and I would have loved to be martyred in Allah's cause and then made alive, and then martyred and then made alive, and then again martyred in His cause."

• And fight them until there is no more Fitnah and the religion (worship) will all be for Allâh Alone. (Q2.193; 8.39)

• Allah's Apostle said: "I have been ordered (by Allah) to fight against the people until they testify that Lâ ilaha illallâh wa Anna Muhammad-ur-Rasûl Allâh (none has the right to be worshipped but Allah and that Muhammad is Allah's Apostle), and offer the prayers perfectly and give the obligatory charity, so if they perform a that, then they save their lives an property from me except for Islamic laws and then their reckoning (accounts) will be done by Allah."

Verily, Allâh has purchased of the believers their lives and their properties; for the price that theirs shall be the Paradise. They fight in Allâh's Cause, so they kill (others) and are killed. It is a promise in truth which is binding on Him in the Taurât (Torah) and the Injeel (Gospel) and the Qur'ân. And who is truer to his covenant than Allâh? Then rejoice in the bargain which you have concluded. That is the supreme success. (Q9.111)

And Bukhari relates:

Allah's Apostle said, "Allah guarantees him who strives in His Cause and whose motivation for going out is nothing but Jihad in His Cause and belief in His Word, that He will admit him into Paradise (if martyred) or bring him back to his dwelling place, whence he has come out, with what he gains of reward and booty."

Martyrdom in the cause of Allah is the most noble and honorable act a Muslim can commit. Bukhari relates:

The Prophet said, "The person who participates in (Holy battles) in Allah's cause and nothing compels him to do so except belief in Allah and His Apostles, will be recompensed by Allah either with a reward, or booty (if he survives) or will be admitted to Paradise (if he is killed in the battle as a martyr). Had I not found it difficult for my followers, then I would not remain behind any sariya going for Jihad and I would have loved to be martyred in Allah's cause and then made alive, and then martyred and then made alive, and then again martyred in His cause."

And from Imam Muslim:

[T]he Messenger of Allah (may peace be upon him) said: Nobody who enters Paradise will (ever like to) return to this world even if he were offered everything on the surface of the earth (as an inducement) except the martyr who will desire to return to this world and be killed ten times for the sake of the great honour that has been bestowed upon him.

See also suicide.

For the kafirun, the establishment of Shari'a law or Dar al-Islam brings about the end of jihad so long as the law is obeyed. Those non-Muslims who are not killed or taken captive are subdued and disgraced by the jizyah and dhimmitude.

For the Muslim, all aspects of life, wherever applicable, must be governed by the laws of the Qur'an and the example of the prophet. Women become second-class citizens, inferior to men in every way. The Qur'an says:

Allâh commands you as regards your children's (inheritance); to the male, a portion equal to that of two females. (Q4.11)

Men are the protectors and maintainers of women, because Allâh has made one of them to excel the other, and because they spend (to support them) from their means. Therefore the righteous women are devoutly obedient, and guard in the husband's absence what Allâh orders them to guard. As to those women on whose part you see ill­conduct, admonish them, refuse to share their beds, and beat them. But if they return to obedience, seek not against them means (of annoyance). Surely, Allâh is Ever Most High, Most Great. (Q4.34)

And Bukhari relates:

Once Allah's Apostle went out to the Musalla (to offer the prayer) o 'Id-al-Adha or Al-Fitr prayer. Then he passed by the women and said, "O women! Give alms, as I have seen that the majority of the dwellers of Hell-fire were you (women)." They asked, "Why is it so, O Allah's Apostle?" He replied, "You curse frequently and are ungrateful to your husbands. I have not seen anyone more deficient in intelligence and religion than you. A cautious sensible man could be led astray by some of you." The women asked, "O Allah's Apostle! What is deficient in our intelligence and religion?" He said, "Is not the evidence of two women equal to the witness of one man?" They replied in the affirmative. He said, "This is the deficiency in her intelligence. Isn't it true that a woman can neither pray nor fast during her menses?" The women replied in the affirmative. He said, "This is the deficiency in her religion."

Also, Malik relates why Muslim men may not shake hands with women:

[...] Umayma (a female Muslim) continued, "They said, 'Allah and His Messenger are more merciful to us than ourselves. Come, let us give our hands to you, Messenger of Allah!' The Messenger of Allah, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, said, 'I do not shake hands with women. My word to a hundred women is like my word to one woman.'"

Several traditions found in Sahih Muslim relate that the presence of women, or a menstruating women, as well as certain wild animals including an ass or a black dog (which is a devil), interrupt prayer, which explains why women are separated from men in mosques and madrasses. It is related by Hisham in Sirat Rasul Allah (pg 644) that a woman can never fulfil her husbands needs, even if she found his nose bleeding and running with pus and sucked until his nose were clean.

Non-Muslims may convert to Islam, but once the declaration of faith (the Shahada) is made, the penalty for apostasy is death.

Verily! Allâh forgives not (the sin of) setting up partners in worship with Him, but He forgives whom he pleases sins other than that, and whoever sets up partners in worship with Allâh, has indeed strayed far away. (Q4.116)

Surely, they have disbelieved who say: "Allâh is the Messiah (Jesus), son of Maryam (Mary)." But the Messiah (Jesus) said: "O Children of Israel! Worship Allâh, my Lord and your Lord." Verily, whosoever sets up partners in worship with Allâh, then Allâh has forbidden Paradise for him, and the Fire will be his abode. (Q5.72-73)

And the Jews say: 'Uzair (Ezra) is the son of Allâh, and the Christians say: Messiah is the son of Allâh.' That is a saying from their mouths. They imitate the saying of the disbelievers of old. Allâh's Curse be on them, how they are deluded away from the truth! They (Jews and Christians) took their rabbis and their monks to be their lords besides Allâh, and (they also took as their Lord) Messiah, son of Maryam (Mary), while they were commanded to worship none but One Ilâh (God - Allâh). Lâ ilâha illa Huwa (none has the right to be worshipped but He). Praise and glory be to Him, (far above is He) from having the partners they associate (with Him). They (the disbelievers, the Jews and the Christians) want to extinguish Allâh's Light with their mouths, but Allâh will not allow except that His Light should be perfected even though the Kâfirûn (disbelievers) hate (it). It is He Who has sent His Messenger with guidance and the religion of truth (Islâm), to make it superior over all religions even though the Mushrikûn hate (it). (Q9.30-33)

Those guilty of shirk are known as the Mushrikûn. Shirk can also be attributed to acts or beliefs which one holds that are higher than Islam, or that are not in keeping with Islamic law, such as the desire to forge honest, peaceful relations with Jews and Christians despite the word of Allah (Q5.51). See apostasy.

However, if a soldier falls onto a live grenade, sacrificing himself so that none of his fellow soldiers are injured or killed by it, is that suicide? Typically we'd refer to that as an act of tremendous and commendable bravery. If a group of fighters faces an army so overwhelming that defeat is certain but chooses to fight anyway, is that suicide? If a secret service agent takes a bullet for the president, is that suicide? Typically we think of suicide as a senseless act, without any purpose except ending one's own life.

When considering suicide in an Islamic context, we must keep in mind that there is no greater act a Muslim can perform than putting himself and his property in danger (for Allah's sake) and ... not return[ing] with any of those things (Bukhari). Suicide, as viewed as the senseless act of taking one's own life, is forbidden in the tradition (though not mentioned in the Qur'an). The shahid, however, enters paradise instantly, all of his sins are forgiven, and is married to at least 72 virgin angels (Tirmidhi), amongst other licentious pleasures granted him. In an Islamic sense, sacrificing one's own life to kill dozens of kafirun is not a senseless act, given the glory attached to death in Islamic theology. Allah said,

Think not of those who are killed in the Way of Allâh as dead. Nay, they are alive, with their Lord, and they have provision. They rejoice in what Allâh has bestowed upon them of His Bounty, rejoicing for the sake of those who have not yet joined them, but are left behind (not yet martyred) that on them no fear shall come, nor shall they grieve. (Q3.169)

And Muhammad said,

The person who participates in jihad in Allah's cause and nothing compels him to do so except belief in Allah and His Apostle, will be recompensed by Allah either with a reward, or booty (if he survives) or will be admitted to Paradise (if he is killed in the battle as a martyr). Had I not found it difficult for my followers, then I would not remain behind any sariya going for Jihad and I would have loved to be martyred in Allah's cause and then made alive, and then martyred and then made alive, and then again martyred in His cause. (Bukhari)

Let not the believers take the disbelievers as Auliyâ (supporters, helpers, etc.) instead of the believers, and whoever does that will never be helped by Allâh in any way, except if you indeed fear a danger from them. And Allâh warns you against Himself (His Punishment), and to Allâh is the final return. (Q3.28)

On Q3.28, Ibn Kathir says,

Allah prohibited His believing servants from becoming supporters of the disbelievers, or to take them as comrades with whom they develop friendships, rather than the believers. Allah warned against such behavior when He said,
And whoever does that, will never be helped by Allah in any way

meaning, whoever commits this act that Allah has prohibited, then Allah will discard him. Similarly, Allah said,

O you who believe! Take not My enemies and your enemies as friends, showing affection towards them

until,

And whosoever of you does that, then indeed he has gone astray from the straight path. (60.1).

Allah said,

O you who believe! Take not for friends disbelievers instead of believers. Do you wish to offer Allah a manifest proof against yourselves? (4.144)

and,
O you who believe! Take not the Jews and the Christians as friends, they are but friends of each other. And whoever befriends them, then surely, he is one of them. (5.51)

Allah said, after mentioning the fact that the faithful believers gave their support to the faithful believers among the Muhajirin, Ansar and Bedouins,

And those who disbelieve are allies of one another, (and) if you do not behave the same, there will be Fitnah and oppression on the earth, and a great mischief and corruption. (8.73)

Allah said next,

unless you indeed fear a danger from them

meaning, except those believers who in some areas or times fear for their safety from the disbelievers. In this case, such believers are allowed to show friendship to the disbelievers outwardly, but never inwardly. For instance, Al-Bukhari recorded that Abu Ad-Darda' said, "We smile in the face of some people although our hearts curse them." Al-Bukhari said that Al-Hasan said, "The Tuqyah (taqiyya) is allowed until the Day of Resurrection."

The Qur'an also says,

Whoever disbelieved in Allâh after his belief, except him who is forced thereto and whose heart is at rest with Faith but such as open their breasts to disbelief, on them is wrath from Allâh, and theirs will be a great torment.

Compulsion is relavant in non-Muslim societies, because, were the Muslim to freely admit his intention to destroy, subjugate, or otherwise do harm to his host nation and those non-Muslims living there, he would be subject to the secular laws of that land, which include imprisonment and possibly death.

Taqiyya is also allowed in instances where deception is needed to hide a Muslim's intention to do harm. For instance, Kab b. al-Ashraf, chief of the Jewish Banu Nadr tribe of Medina, composed amatory verses of an insulting nature about Muslim women, for which he was ordered killed by Muhammad. Muhammad b. Maslama, one of Muhammad's followers, volunteered to kill him, but after three days, he expressed doubt over whether he could complete the task because he would have to lie in order to gain the Jew's trust. Muhammad said, "Say what you like, for you are free in the matter." Maslama and his companions flattered Ashraf, slandered the prophet and gained his trust, and ambushed him during a night stroll (Ishaq; Bukhari).

Another form of dissimulation is deliberate ambiguity; telling half-truths or concealing the truth without actually lying. A simplistic analogy:

A wife asks her husband if he has a dollar. The husband says, "No, I do not have a dollar." Meanwhile, in his pocket he has five or ten or twenty dollar bills. His words on the surface were truthful, though it was his intention to be deceiving.

Chapter 116 of Sahih Bukhari's Al-Adab (The Book of Manners) is titled Al-Ma'arid (indirect speech) is a safe way to avoid a lie (Volume 8, page 128). Jihadists posing as moderates are quick to condemn vague actions such as "terrorism" or the killing of "innocents", but would never renounce jihad and are almost certainly aware that the Islamic definition of "innocent" is a far cry from the Merriam-Webster definition. Others say that jihad is allowed only in self-defense, but omit the fact that disbelief is worse than killing (Q2.217) (thus presenting a definition of self-defense that would differ from non-Muslims). Unfortunately most non-Muslims are too uninformed about discrepancies between Islamic beliefs and our own, and jihadists, through their outright taqiyya or Al-Ma'arid, find it easy to soothe the masses with their veiled talk of pluralism, peace, and co-existance.

Taqiyya is not just an issue of outright lying. Telling lies and breaking oaths seems, today, rather trivial compared to other things jihadists are doing, such as flying planes into buildings. Taqiyya is central to the question of whether Muslims may faithfully participate in and contribute to non-Muslim cultures such as America. Fundamentally, for a Muslim to accept and submit to non-Islamic authority (Q5.3; 6.38; 7.3; 16.89; 28.50; etc.) and to make friends and form alliances with disbelievers (Q5.51, etc.) is a blatant act of apostasy par excellance. When a Muslim shakes your hand, when he smiles to your face, when he runs for Congress, does he curse you in his heart? Or is he just ignorant or dismissive of certain tenates of his own faith? It is impossible to tell, until acts of jihad are uncovered by authorities, whether by discovering the conspiracy or experiencing its aftermath.

Unlike other faiths, the issue of Muslim loyalty in Dar al-Harb is of utmost concern. We are reminded of this fact by people like Sgt Hasan Akbar, a Muslim convert who joined the Army and subsequently murdered his fellow soldiers because, as he put it, "You guys are coming into our countries, and you're going to rape our women and kill our children" (emphasis added). Clearly Akbar saw himself, as is his religious duty, as a Muslim bound to Islamic law, and found his bounds of fellowship in the ummah (Islamic nation), not the country he took an oath to defend.

The ulema represents what would be similar to a legislative body of government, except their rulings are (supposedly) binding on the entire Muslim ummah. Varying degrees of legitimacy are placed on specific bodies, such as the fatwah issued by The World Islamic Front urging jihad against Jews and "Crusaders", issued by Osama bin Laden and Ayman al-Zawahiri, among others, who would later form al Qaeda, and the North American Fiqh Council, who issued a fatwah against terrorism in July 2005.

You (Muslims) are the best of peoples ever raised up for mankind; you enjoin Al-Ma'rûf (pious Islamic belief) and forbid Al-Munkar (disbelief), and you believe in Allâh. And had the people of the Scripture believed, it would have been better for them; among them are some who have faith, but most of them are Al-Fâsiqûn (reprobates who profess Islam but are not recognized as Muslims). (Q3.110)

In Bukhari, commentary on the meaning of this verse:

The verse: "You (Muslims) are the best of peoples ever raised up for mankind..." means, the best for the people, as you bring them with chains on their necks til they embrace Islam (thereby save them from eternal punishment in Hell-fire and make them enter Paradise in the Hereafter).

Ibn Kathir's commentary:

Virtues of the Ummah of Muhammad, the Best Nation Ever

Allah states that the Ummah of Muhammad is the best nation ever,

(You are the best of peoples ever raised up for mankind) [3:110].

Al-Bukhari recorded that Abu Hurayrah commented on this Ayah, "(You, Muslims, are) the best nation of people for the people, you bring them tied in chains on their necks (capture them in war) and they later embrace Islam." Similar was said by Ibn `Abbas, Mujahid, `Atiyah Al-`Awfi, `Ikrimah, `Ata' and Ar-Rabi` bin Anas that,

(You are the best of peoples ever raised up for mankind;)

means, the best of peoples for the people.

The meaning of the Ayah is that the Ummah of Muhammad is the most righteous and beneficial nation for mankind. Hence Allah's description of them,

(you enjoin Al-Ma`ruf and forbid Al-Munkar and believe in Allah) [3:110].

Ahmad, At-Tirmidhi, Ibn Majah, and Al-Hakim recorded that Hakim bin Mu`awiyah bin Haydah narrated that his father said that the Messenger of Allah said,

(You are the final of seventy nations, you are the best and most honored among them to Allah.)

This is a well-known Hadith about which At-Tirmidhi said, "Hasan", and which is also narrated from Mu`adh bin Jabal and Abu Sa`id. The Ummah of Muhammad achieved this virtue because of its Prophet, Muhammad, peace be upon him, the most regarded of Allah's creation and the most honored Messenger with Allah. Allah sent Muhammad with the perfect and complete Law that was never given to any Prophet or Messenger before him. In Muhammad's Law, few deeds take the place of the many deeds that other nations performed. For instance, Imam Ahmad recorded that `Ali bin Abi Talib said, "The Messenger of Allah said,

(I was given what no other Prophet before me was given.)

We said, `O Messenger of Allah! What is it' He said,

(I was given victory by fear, I was given the keys of the earth, I was called Ahmad, the earth was made a clean place for me (to pray and perform Tayammum with it) and my Ummah was made the best Ummah.)."

Allah also says,

Thus We have made you (Muslims) a Wasat (just) (and the best) nation, that you be witnesses over mankind and the Messenger be a witness over you. (Q2.143)